Large Number Of Families Research Articles

Romani Families Transforming the School

When we explain to people that we are lucky enough to work in neighborhoods with schools where a large number of families are Romany, at first they do not understand why we say this. When we tell people everything that we do, they do not believe it is possible. Because of the stigmatization of Roma there are labels associated to them, which lead to presumptions that those who relate to or work with Roma, rather than being lucky are unfortunate. It surprises people, however, that all those who work with Roma in a respectful way, avoiding stereotypes and clichés, learn to value all the positive aspects of the Romani culture.

X-linked Alport syndrome: natural history and genotype-phenotype correlations in girls and women belonging to 195 families: a "European Community Alport Syndrome Concerted Action" study.

Alport syndrome (AS) is a type IV collagen hereditary disease characterized by progressive hematuric nephritis, hearing loss, and ocular changes. Mutations in the COL4A5 collagen gene are responsible for the more common X-linked dominant form of the disease characterized by much less severe disease in girls and women. A "European Community Alport Syndrome Concerted Action" (ECASCA) group was established to delineate the Alport syndrome phenotype in each gender and to determine genotype-phenotype correlations in a large number of families. Data concerning 329 families, 250 of them with an X-linked transmission, were collected. Characteristics of heterozygous girls and women belonging to the 195 families with proven COL4A5 mutation are compared with those of hemizygous boys and men. Hematuria was observed in 95% of carriers and consistently absent in the others. Proteinuria, hearing loss, and ocular defects developed in 75%, 28%, and 15%, respectively. The probability of developing end-stage renal disease or deafness before the age of 40 yr was 12% and 10%, respectively, in girls and women versus 90 and 80%, respectively, in boys and men. The risk of progression to end-stage renal disease appears to increase after the age of 60 yr in women. Because of the absence of genotype-phenotype correlation and the large intrafamilial phenotypic heterogeneity, early prognosis of the disease in X-linked Alport syndrome carriers remains moot. Risk factors for developing renal failure have been identified: the occurrence and progressive increase in proteinuria, and the development of a hearing defect.

Do multiple families alter estimates of risk for age-related cataract in a population-based study? The Beaver Dam Eye Study

We sought to determine the effect of “genetic” load on the strengths of risk factors for age-related cataracts in the population-based Beaver Dam Eye Study. Of the 4,926 participants in the baseline examination in 1988 to 1990, 2,338 were members of 594 family groups. There were no important differences in the risks due to pack-years smoked, systolic and diastolic blood pressures, body mass index, current smoking, hypertension or hormone replacement therapy for either the whole population or subgroups created by omitting siblings or any family relation. There were some differences when the analyses were limited to only a randomly selected family member or a randomly selected sibling. These latter findings may relate to the older average age of those in sibships or in families compared to those not in families. We conclude that for the associations we explored, the relatively large number of families in our population had little effect on the strengths of the risk factors, and that limiting analyses to only those not in families may distort risk factor associations by altering the age structure in this population.

Genetic screening for MEN1 mutations in families presenting with familial primary hyperparathyroidism.

A large number of families with familial isolated hyperparathyroidism (FIHP) have been reported. We wanted to determine if some of these families represent early manifestations of full-blown syndromes such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN-1), as early identification may alter surgical and medical management. Four small families with a family history of hyperparathyroidism without clear-cut MEN-1 features were screened for a MEN1 mutation. The 10 exons of the MEN1 gene were amplified and analyzed by single-strand conformation analysis (SSCA). Abnormal SSCA shifts were then sequenced using an automated sequencer. Two germline mutations were found: R527X and P277H. The former was detected in three members of a family consisting of two children and a mother. At the time of testing the youngest son was normocalcemic and clinically normal but subsequently developed hyperparathyroidism (HPT). Since the initial testing, the family has been confirmed to be a MEN-1 family as the mother has developed abdominal pain and an elevated serum pancreatic polypeptide and the younger brother an anterior pituitary tumor and recurrent HPT. The latter P277H mutation was identified in two of three members tested from another family. Manifestations of MEN-1 syndrome have also developed. The father now has developed diarrhea and elevated serum gastrin; and the daughter has developed recurrent HPT. Genetic screening of families who clinically have FIHP is important and may influence the type of medical and surgical treatment and follow-up, as some have MEN-1 syndrome. Long-term screening for MEN syndromes should be included in this set of patients. Positive screening may predict disease and allow early detection and appropriate treatment before initiation of symptoms.

Genetics of familial cardiomyopathies and arrhythmias.

Molecular cardiology has become an important tool in understanding the aetiology, pathogenesis and development of familial cardiomyopathies and arrhythmias. The knowledge of genotype-phenotype correlations in certain pathologies has changed the concepts of therapy. In monogenic diseases, genetic testing offers a new complementary diagnostic approach. A genetic test can be used to confirm a clinically determined diagnosis, predict prognosis in a clinically affected patient, or provide options for therapy in patients and in clinically unaffected relatives of a patient with the disease producing mutation. In pure forms of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy mutations in several genes coding for sarcomeric proteins have been identified, indicating wide locus heterogeneity. Various disease genes are implicated in familial dilated cardiomyopathy in the pure form or in combination with other diseases. In the long QT syndrome and Brugada syndrome, mutations in ion channel genes can cause the disease; one of those genes is also implicated in progressive cardiac conduction defect. In other familial diseases like the arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, anyone of the numerous chromosomal loci can be involved, but only one gene has been identified so far. The same gene is also involved in catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. From genotype-phenotype studies, correlations between gene-mutations and the clinical course of the disease have become clear. As only a few families with the same mutations have been studied, data have to be considered as preliminary and any conclusion must be regarded as tentative. This emphasizes the need to study genotype-phenotype correlations in a large number of families.

Genetics of familial cardiomyopathies and arrhythmias.

Molecular cardiology has become an important tool in understanding the aetiology, pathogenesis and development of familial cardiomyopathies and arrhythmias. The knowledge of genotype-phenotype correlations in certain pathologies has changed the concepts of therapy. In monogenic diseases, genetic testing offers a new complementary diagnostic approach. A genetic test can be used to confirm a clinically determined diagnosis, predict prognosis in a clinically affected patient, or provide options for therapy in patients and in clinically unaffected relatives of a patient with the disease producing mutation. In pure forms of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy mutations in several genes coding for sarcomeric proteins have been identified, indicating wide locus heterogeneity. Various disease genes are implicated in familial dilated cardiomyopathy in the pure form or in combination with other diseases. In the long QT syndrome and Brugada syndrome, mutations in ion channel genes can cause the disease; one of those genes is also implicated in progressive cardiac conduction defect. In other familial diseases like the arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, anyone of the numerous chromosomal loci can be involved, but only one gene has been identified so far. The same gene is also involved in catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. From genotype-phenotype studies, correlations between gene-mutations and the clinical course of the disease have become clear. As only a few families with the same mutations have been studied, data have to be considered as preliminary and any conclusion must be regarded as tentative. This emphasizes the need to study genotype-phenotype correlations in a large number of families.

Letter from India

Rabies is a major public health problem in India. Most patients are looked after by general physicians and infectious disease specialists. But sometimes the case is atypical and can come...

Traditional marriage and family relations of the Albanian population from Kosovo and Metohia in the light of Leka Dukajini Code

The Leka Dukajini Code (LDC) influenced the way of life of Albanian population to a great extent. It represents a set of rules and norms by which they regulated their relations, and it is believed that they still do so presently as well to some extent. Taking into consideration that LDC includes almost all social, economic and moral spheres of life, this paper analyzes the fields which contribute to the familiarization with the conditions in which the Kosovo and Metohia population developed, such as the organization of the patriarchal family, marriage relations, the position of women, inheritance, and similar. The patriarchy with Albanians is still present today, especially in the villages, and here and there in towns, despite the escalated process of urbanization and industrialization. Manifestations of this patriarchal way of life are reflected through the maintenance of the institutions of family clans, whose characteristics are a large number of families, mutual property and production means, mutual production and consumption as well as communal living. A large number of authors believes that in the ethno-psyche of every Albanian there are still roots of will and sympathy towards clans. A clan is governed by its head, and his authority, although established on the interests of the group, presents limited individual freedom for the members of the family because it is expected from them to respect the will of the head of the family. Family clans in the eyes of others represents a secure way of life. Common law arose and developed under cruel life conditions, codified the way of life and in that way neglected individuality yet imposed the group, large families, solidarity and submissiveness to authority. The whole LDC is imbued with religious spirit, which is most obviously expressed with the institution of marriage. It also puts the woman in the worst position, who is not respected as a women, who has no right in decision making, and the more she neglected herself in interest of her husband, children and family, the more male children she gave birth to, the more she was respected in the family. Such discriminatory treatment of women is considered an integral part of the 'view' on life of Albanian society. In a life which brought little satisfaction to the woman, and much suffering, frustration, rejection and humiliation, the only meaning of life would represent giving birth and raising children. However, the following question is imposed: how much a woman, neglected, without influence outside the family, poorly educated and unprepared for life, is capable for the role of a mother. If she is the first tutor of the children, and in addition uneducated, how can education and progress be expected. It is also stated that the woman is regarded as the bearer, namely guardian of traditional values, although they are turned against herself. Women regard the innovations with great distrust and cautiousness and will accept it only if they are sure that they will not be responsible for endangering the continuity of the traditional way of life and interests of her relatives.

Rapid scanning of myotubularin (MTM1) gene by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC)

X-linked myotubular myopathy (XLMTM; OMIM# 310400) is a severe congenital muscle disease caused by mutations in the myotubularin (MTM1) gene. This gene encodes for a lipid phosphatase belonging to a large gene family involved in the regulation of phosphatidylinositide-3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) pathway and membrane trafficking. To date, more than 130 different mutations, distributed in all exons, have been identified in a large number of families. The majority of MTM1 mutations are private and rare, generating high allelic diversity, with a restricted number of recurrent mutations. We set up and formatted a denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) method to allow high throughput, greater accuracy and high resolution in detecting myotubularin mutations. The entire coding sequence of the gene was screened in 10 XLMTM patients using this technique. We identified seven mutated alleles [R37X, (137-11) A, (592-593) insA, T197I, R253X, G378R, G402R] previously characterised by SSCP and DNA sequencing, plus two novel mutations which are reported here [P199S, (1644+2) insG]. In addition we detected a common polymorphism within intron 11 (1314+3A/G). Our results suggest that denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography provides an accurate method for the rapid identification of MTM1 mutations.

A geographic analysis of motor vehicle collisions with child pedestrians in Long Beach, California: comparing intersection and midblock incident locations

Objectives—The purpose of this study was to use geographic information system (GIS) software to locate areas of high risk for child pedestrian-motor vehicle collisions in the city of Long Beach...

Gynoecium diversity and systematics in basal monocots

Gynoecium and ovule structure was comparatively studied in representatives of the basal monocots, including Acorales (Acoraceae), Alismatales (Araceae, Alismataceae, Aponogetonaceae, Butomaceae, Hydrocharitaceae, JuncÍaginaceae, Limnocharitaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Scheuchzeriaceae, Tofieldiaceae), Dioscoreales (Dioscoreaceae, Taccaceae), and Triuridaceae as a family of uncertain position in monocots. In all taxa studied the carpels or gynoecia are closed at anthesis. This closure is attained in different ways: (1) by secretion without postgenital fusion (Araceae, Hydrocharitaceae); (2) by partly postgenitally fused periphery but with a completely unfused canal (Alismataceae, Aponogetonaceae, Butomaceae, Limnocharitaceae, Scheuchzeriaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Taccaceae); (3) by completely postgenitally fused periphery but with an unfused canal in the centre (Acoraceae, Tofieldiaceae); (4) by complete postgenital fusion and without an (unfused) canal (Juncaginaceae, Potamogetonaceae). In many Alismatales (but without Araceae) carpels have two lateral lobes. The stigmatic surface is restricted to the uppermost part of the ventral slit (if the carpel is plicate); it is never distinctly double-crested (Butomaceae?). Stigmas are commonly unicellular-papillate and secretory in most taxa. The locules are filled with a (often) mucilaginous secretion in a number of taxa. Superficial (probably intrusive) ethereal oil cells were found in the carpel wall of Acorus gramineus (as in Piperales!). Idioblasts in carpels are otherwise rare. A number of basal monocots has orthotropous ovules, which is perhaps the plesiomorphic condition in the group. The presence of almost tenuinucellar (pseudocrassinucellar) ovules is relatively common (Acoraceae, many Araceae, some Alismatales s.s.), whereas completely tenuinucellar ovules are rare and do not characterize larger groups. However, crassinucellar ovules occur in the largest number of families among the study group (basal Araceae, many Alismatales s.s.) The outer integument is always annular in orthotropous ovules. The inner integument is often lobed and it mostly forms the micropyle, whereas the outer integument is always unlobed. Gynoecium structure supports the isolated position of Acoraceae as sister to all other monocots. However, in an overall view, if compared with all other families, Acoraceae clearly shows the greatest similarities with Araceae.

Gynoecium diversity and systematics in basal monocots

Abstract Gynoecium and ovule structure was comparatively studied in representatives of the basal monocots, including Acorales (Acoraceae), Alismatales (Araceae, Alismataceae, Aponogetonaceae, Butomaceae, Hydrocharitaceae, JuncIaginaceae, Limnocharitaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Scheuchzeriaceae, Tofieldiaceae), Dioscoreales (Dioscoreaceae, Taccaceae), and Triuridaceae as a family of uncertain position in monocots. In all taxa studied the carpels or gynoecia are closed at anthesis. This closure is attained in different ways: (1) by secretion without postgenital fusion (Araceae, Hydrocharitaceae); (2) by partly postgenitally fused periphery but with a completely unfused canal (Alismataceae, Aponogetonaceae, Butomaceae, Limnocharitaceae, Scheuchzeriaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Taccaceae); (3) by completely postgenitally fused periphery but with an unfused canal in the centre (Acoraceae, Tofieldiaceae); (4) by complete postgenital fusion and without an (unfused) canal (Juncaginaceae, Potamogetonaceae). In many Alismatales (but without Araceae) carpels have two lateral lobes. The stigmatic surface is restricted to the uppermost part of the ventral slit (if the carpel is plicate); it is never distinctly double-crested (Butomaceae?). Stigmas are commonly unicellular-papillate and secretory in most taxa. The locules are filled with a (often) mucilaginous secretion in a number of taxa. Superficial (probably intrusive) ethereal oil cells were found in the carpel wall of Acorus gramineus (as in Piperales!). Idioblasts in carpels are otherwise rare. A number of basal monocots has orthotropous ovules, which is perhaps the plesiomorphic condition in the group. The presence of almost tenuinucellar (pseudocrassinucellar) ovules is relatively common (Acoraceae, many Araceae, some Alismatales s.s. ), whereas completely tenuinucellar ovules are rare and do not characterize larger groups. However, crassinucellar ovules occur in the largest number of families among the study group (basal Araceae, many Alismatales s.s. ) The outer integument is always annular in orthotropous ovules. The inner integument is often lobed and it mostly forms the micropyle, whereas the outer integument is always unlobed. Gynoecium structure supports the isolated position of Acoraceae as sister to all other monocots. However, in an overall view, if compared with all other families, Acoraceae clearly shows the greatest similarities with Araceae.

The epidemiology of the genetic liability for schizophrenia.

The low incidence of schizophrenia prohibits large scale prevention trials, and the question arises whether such studies become more feasible by taking into account genetic factors. The aim of the paper was to inform preventive endeavours with an account of the genetic background to schizophrenia. The family, twin and adoptive studies of schizophrenia are reviewed and recent molecular genetic data presented. Children of a parent diagnosed with schizophrenia have a ten-fold increased risk of developing the disorder. Twin and adoption studies strongly suggest the risk increase is mainly due to genetic factors. On an individual level, a positive family history is the strongest known risk factor for schizophrenia. For a prevention study, very large numbers of families have to be screened in order to reach a sufficient sample size. One obvious way to increase the accuracy of predicting who is at high risk of developing schizophrenia would be to find specific mutations in the human genome. Attempts to isolate specific genes by means of linkage and association studies have been unsuccessful so far and, given the number of genes involved, it is extremely unlikely that the predictive value of individual genes will be high enough to warrant intervention. Genetic studies also suggest the genetic liability extends beyond the traditional clinical phenotypes. Prevention trials might become possible by adopting a broader approach.

Parental values in the decision about cochlear implantation

Parents of children who are deaf are required to make decisions shortly after diagnosis that will affect the child's method of communication and educational placement. This study examines the role of parental values and preferences in this decision making process. Twenty families with a deaf child participated in this study. Parents from 19 of these families completed a multi-attribute preference study, which assesses their preference for different outcomes in four domains, i.e. academic achievement, social life, communication, and emotional well being. In ten of these families, the child had received a cochlear implant. Results indicate wide variability in parental preferences, which do not appear to correlate with the parents’ decisions to choose cochlear implantation. Interview data from the study provides some insight into the parents’ motivations. The small size of the study limits further analysis of factors that influence parents’ choices and suggests further study with larger numbers of families.

X-linked Alport syndrome: natural history in 195 families and genotype- phenotype correlations in males.

Alport syndrome (AS) is a type IV collagen hereditary disease characterized by the association of progressive hematuric nephritis, hearing loss, and, frequently, ocular changes. Mutations in the COL4A5 collagen gene are responsible for the more common X-linked dominant form of the disease. Considerable allelic heterogeneity has been observed. A "European Community Alport Syndrome Concerted Action" has been established to delineate accurately the AS phenotype and to determine genotype-phenotype correlations in a large number of families. Data concerning 329 families, 250 of them with an X-linked transmission, were collected. Characteristics of the 401 male patients belonging to the 195 families with COL4A5 mutation are presented. All male patients were hematuric, and the rate of progression to end-stage renal failure and deafness was mutation-dependent. Large deletions, non-sense mutations, or small mutations changing the reading frame conferred to affected male patients a 90% probability of developing end-stage renal failure before 30 yr of age, whereas the same risk was of 50 and 70%, respectively, in patients with missense or splice site mutation. The risk of developing hearing loss before 30 yr of age was approximately 60% in patients with missense mutations, contrary to 90% for the other types of mutations. The natural history of X-linked AS and correlations with COL4A5 mutations have been established in a large cohort of male patients. These data could be used for further evaluation of therapeutic approaches.

The Epidemiology of the Genetic Liability for Schizophrenia

ObjectiveThe low incidence of schizophrenia prohibits large scale prevention trials, and the question arises whether such studies become more feasible by taking into account genetic factors. The aim of the paper was to inform preventive endeavours with an account of the genetic background to schizophrenia.MethodThe family, twin and adoptive studies of schizophrenia are reviewed and recent molecular genetic data presented.ResultsChildren of a parent diagnosed with schizophrenia have a ten-fold increased risk of developing the disorder. Twin and adoption studies strongly suggest the risk increase is mainly due to genetic factors. On an individual level, a positive family history is the strongest known risk factor for schizophrenia. For a prevention study, very large numbers of families have to be screened in order to reach a sufficient sample size.ConclusionsOne obvious way to increase the accuracy of predicting who is at high risk of developing schizophrenia would be to find specific mutations in the human genome. Attempts to isolate specific genes by means of linkage and association studies have been unsuccessful so far and, given the number of genes involved, it is extremely unlikely that the predictive value of individual genes will be high enough to warrant intervention. Genetic studies also suggest the genetic liability extends beyond the traditional clinical phenotypes. Prevention trials might become possible by adopting a broader approach.

Genetic determinants of diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy is the most serious complication of diabetes mellitus. Progression of the condition leads to end-stage renal failure, and other complications of diabetes are also common in this group of patients. The onset of overt albuminuria in a patient with diabetes heralds an increased risk of death, particularly from cardiovascular disease. There is considerable evidence to show that nephropathy is influenced by genetic factors. Epidemiological studies show that only a minority of patients with diabetes develop nephropathy irrespective of glycaemic control, suggesting that a subgroup of patients are at higher risk of nephropathy. Marked ethnic variation is observed, with nephropathy being more common in certain ethnic groups. Familial clustering of nephropathy is also observed. Parental history of hypertension, diabetes or cardiovascular disease appears to predispose to nephropathy in patients with diabetes. A number of methods are available to dissect polygenic disease: animal models, genetic association studies (case-control studies), affected sib-pair studies, discordant sib-pair studies and transmission distortion analysis. Most published work has been based on association studies. Association studies have shown conflicting results often due to small numbers of cases and controls, and poor phenotypic characterization. The angiotensin-converting enzyme gene insertion (I)/deletion (D) polymorphism has been studied in detail, but does not appear to be a strong risk marker for nephropathy. It does, however, appear to have a role in response to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition, with II homozygotes being the most responsive and DD homozygotes the least. A number of other genetic loci have also shown positive associations with nephropathy, including apolipoprotein E, heparan sulphate and aldose reductase. More recently, affected sib-pair analysis and discordant sib-pair analysis have suggested possible genetic loci on chromosomes 3, 7, 9, 12 and 20. These have yet to be reproduced in larger numbers of families, and the specific gene regions on these chromosomes remain elusive. The evidence presented in this review strongly supports the role of genetic factors in nephropathy. Detection of strong genetic risk markers for nephropathy will allow further insights into the pathogenesis of nephropathy, and possibly the development of novel therapeutic agents for its treatment. It will also allow preventive therapy to be directed at those patients with the greatest risk for development of diabetic nephropathy.

No pathogenic mutations in the persyn gene in Parkinson's disease

The persyn ( γ-synuclein) gene is highly homologous to the α-synuclein gene and is highly expressed in the nervous system. It is therefore, an excellent candidate gene for Parkinson's disease. However, we have sequenced the gene in a large number of families with parkinsonism and failed to find pathogenic mutations.

Discussion of Teng and Siegmund Article

Congratulations to Teng and Siegmund on a thorough treatment of the merits of multipoint affected relative pair analysis compared to single-marker analysis (Teng and Siegmund, 1998). The paper and other work by these authors provide an elegant mathematical framework for investigating problems in gene mapping using multiple marker loci. In the first part of this discussion, I will point out some of the practical issues involved in applying multipoint methods to real genetic diseases, in particular some of the problems multipoint mappers encounter. Although the potential benefits of multipoint are substantial, it is helpful to remember that the use of multipoint is not always straightforward. Research into useful methods of detection of and solutions to these problems is a growing but underexplored area of methodology. Most potential problems in practical applications concern the validity of the assumptions being made. The most important of these are probably the genetic map, the marker allele frequencies, and the absence of marker typing errors. Parameters associated with the first two assumptions are usually considered fixed in mapping applications, rather than being estimated jointly with the trait model and recombination parameters, and most data sets are analyzed under the assumption that there are no marker typing errors. Consider first the assumed marker map. As currently implemented, most genome scans begin with a fairly sparse map, with markers 10-20 cM apart. If suggestive linkage is detected, then a denser set of markers is typed in the interesting region. Teng and Siegmund (1998) appear to recommend using a dense map for the initial genome scan as well, perhaps 1-5 cM. In addition to the obvious issues of the relative cost of genotyping versus relative pair collection, one problem with dense maps is that, at present, one cannot rely completely on given genetic maps with respect to either the marker order or the intermarker distances. Investigators condition on published marker maps or construct their own maps using their own pedigree data. In either case, the resulting maps are often based on fairly small numbers of families so that marker order often cannot be well estimated. To get a better idea of the problem, consider the construction of a 1 cM map using a set of markers with true intermarker distance of 1 cM. On average, one expects to observe 1 recombination event between a given pair of adjacent markers for every 100 fully informative meioses. To obtain a precise estimate of the recombination fraction, a much larger number of fully informative meioses will be required. In addition, markers are not generally fully informative, so the required sample sizes will be even larger. As map order is essentially inferred from the recombination fractions, large numbers of families are required to produce a dense genetic map that can be relied upon with confidence. Using simulations, Hauser, Boehnke, and Risch (1996) and Hauser (1997) investigated the robustness of model-free affected sib-pair lod score methods to marker map errors. The authors discovered that, on average, isolated errors in either intermarker distance or marker order do not significantly affect the size or power of the linkage statistic but that, in individual data sets, different map orders and map distances can produce very different results. More extensive errors in intermarker distances had a greater effect on power. On average, the lod score decreased if the assumed intermarker distances were smaller than the true distances. If the assumed intermarker distances were larger than the true distances, then the lod score increased if parents were not typed but decreased if parents were typed. They did not investigate the effects of multiple map order errors in a small region.

A Comparison of Levels of Involvement for Parents with At-Risk African American Kindergarten Children in Classrooms with High Versus Low Teacher Encouragement

Based on data obtained from their teacher, 76 African American kindergarten children were classified as at risk for poor educational outcome. The parents of these at-risk children also reported their parent involvement levels. Independent ratings by trained observers were used to divide the teachers into a highand low-involvement group based on measures of general involvement and involvement in two specific domains, that is, home-school conmmunication and school volunteering. No statistically significant differences were presentbetween the two groups of parents on the general involvement scores. However, statistically significant differences between parents occurred in home-school communication and school volunteering for parents grouped by teachers who were high and low in the encouragement of specific activities in these two areas. The implications of these findings, including designing and evaluating parent involvement programs for the large number of families with young African American children at-risk for schoolfailure, are discussed.