Large Herds Research Articles

Calf care workers' attitudes and personality and their association with calf mortality in large-scale dairy farms.

Although calf mortality is a multifactorial problem, little is known about the attitudes and personalities of calf care workers (CCWs) and their association with calf mortality. This study aimed to describe the attitudes, satisfaction, and personality of CCWs in large Estonian dairy herds and to analyze their associations with herd calf mortality. A questionnaire registering CCWs' attitudes toward their work and calf mortality, personality characteristics, satisfaction and importance of different job-related factors was developed. In total, completed questionnaire data of 161 CCWs from 108 large (>100 cows) Estonian dairy farms were analyzed. Herd-level yearly calf mortality risk (MR) was calculated. Cluster analysis and variance partitioning analysis were applied to reveal the explanatory capacity of CCWs' attitudes and personalities on calf mortality. The mean yearly herd-level calf MR was 5.4% during the first 21 days of life and 2.7% during 22–90 days of life. Although good calf health and low calf mortality was important for CCWs, dead calves were often seen as inevitable. CCWs were generally doubtful regarding their capacity and available knowledge to influence calf mortality. In high-mortality herds, CCWs were dissatisfied with the calf health situation and farm working equipment and felt that the situation was out of their control. Despite striving, they had less faith that farmworkers could affect the outcomes, such as calf mortality. CCWs' personality domains explained <5% of the variance in the herd's calf MR, whereas their attitudes and satisfaction explained 20% of the variability in calf MR. The current study revealed the importance of the attitudes and satisfaction of CCWs on calf mortality and highlighted the need to allocate proficient assistance to herds with high calf mortality to mitigate calf health problems and the resulting consequences for CCWs.

Sero-survey of bovine herpes virus-1 in dromedary camels and associated risk factors

Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) is a major animal health hazard in many countries throughout the world, caused by bovine herpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1). The study’s goal was to evaluate the prevalence of BoHV-1 seropositivity among dromedary camels in three governorates in northern Egypt, as well as to identify risk variables related with BoHV-1 seropositivity. A total of 321 blood samples were collected randomly from dromedary camels living in the selected governorates and examined for presence of BoHV-1 antibody using ELISA test. The overall seroprevalence of BoHV-1 among examined camels was 5.92% (95%CI: 3.82–9.06). Univariable analysis confirmed that the significant association (P < 0.05) between sex, history of abortion, contact with small ruminants and herd size and BoHV-1 seropositivity. Using multiple logistic regression analysis, the following risk factors were identified to be related with the presence of BoHV-1 infection: sex (OR = 2.54, 95%CI: 0.63–10.22), history of abortion (OR = 4.16, 95%CI: 1.30–13.27), contact with small ruminants (OR = 5.61, 95%CI: 1.67–18.80) and large herd size (OR = 10.52, 95%CI: 2.46–44.91). This study estimated the disease’s seroprevalence in Egyptian dromedary camels, implying that camels could act as a BoHV-1 reservoir for transmission to other species.

Bison wallows effect on soil properties, vegetation composition and structure in a recently reintroduced area

Bison are considered an ecologically keystone species of the North American grasslands because their activities influence ecosystem dynamics and interactions, particularly their wallowing behavior. In 2009, 23 bison were reintroduced within a 1,500 ha private native semi-arid grassland in Janos, Chihuahua. Our objective was to evaluate the effect of bison wallows on the composition and structure of the vegetation, on species composition of annual grasses, and soil properties. Soil and vegetation samples were taken from inside the wallows and were compared against the samples obtained outside the wallows from late August to early September. The percentage of plant cover and the height of the foliage were measured inside and outside the wallow. Soil cores were taken, and the presence of soluble salts, moisture retention capacity, percentage of clay, and concentration of nutrients was determined. The three associations preferred by bison for wallowing were toboso grassland, vine mesquite and annual grassland. Of the 27 species of grasses and forbs recorded in the three plant associations mostly used for wallowing, we found that 17 species were present inside and outside wallows. Five different species were found only inside wallows and another five, only outside of wallows. The annual grassland plants had a greater height outside the wallows. The toboso grassland association presented higher soil moisture, likely related to the higher percentage of clay, and the annual grassland presented the highest bulk density (BD) inside the wallows, which limited plant growth in this association. Soils in other associations did not show significant differences in BD among them, mainly due to their finer texture. No significant effect of the wallows on nutrient concentrations was recorded. The lack of significant differences related to bison activities could be related to the brief period since the herd was reintroduced to the site. These differences might become apparent over time with a larger herd. For this reason, we conclude that the current differences in the soil properties are mainly due to geomorphological processes. That is, at this stage after the reintroduction, the grasslands are responding to soil characteristics, and not to the activity of the bison.

Examining perceived risk to bovine tuberculosis through factorial survey to inform policymaking for zoonotic diseases control and surveillance

Prevention and control of infectious diseases in livestock is dependent upon perceived risk and susceptibility, including the prevention of between-herd transmission of bovine tuberculosis through introductions of cattle to susceptible herds. To examine how perceived risk and susceptibility can help to inform policymaking in disease surveillance and control, we used factorial surveys to profile risk perceptions of cattle producers. We found that government indemnity and slaughtering policy did not impact the cattle purchasing behavior of producers who responded to our survey, but rather through other attributes such as the reliability or reputation of the seller. In addition, we identified significant production type and gender differences in purchasing behavior and risk perception. Finally, clustering analysis revealed a group of high-risk respondents characterized as experienced and very dedicated owners of established medium to large size herds. With the increasing availability of business data, assessment of producer’s behavior, personalities and attitudes allows policymakers to understand the needs of cattle producers and develop tailored programs that will improve producer cooperation with government agencies.

Epidemiological investigation of lumpy skin disease outbreaks in Bangladeshi cattle during 2019-2020.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an acute infectious viral disease of cattle with a wide distribution that emerged in Bangladesh in 2019, causing huge economic losses. This study was undertaken to investigate the epidemiological features of LSD emergence in nine districts of Bangladesh between December 2019 and December 2020. A total of 8215 cattle from 603 herds were investigated and LSD was diagnosed based on the characteristic clinical findings. A standard questionnaire was administered to collect herd-level data including location, herd size, number of LSD-infected cattle, number died due to LSD, farm type, season, house type, vector presence, sanitation and fly repellent use. Similarly, data on clinical signs, sex, age, animal class and breed of the LSD-infected cattle were also recorded. The herd-level attack risk (%) and mortality risk (%) were calculated based on the number of infected and dead cattle, respectively, as a proportion of total cattle. The herd-level risk factors for LSD were identified using a multivariable Poisson regression model. The most common clinical signs were skin nodules (100%), fever (97.9%) and depression with anorexia and weight loss (97.9%). Crossbred (84.9%) and female (72.2%) cattle were mostly affected by LSD. The overall LSD attack risk, mortality risk and case fatality were 26.5%, 0.26% and 0.97%, respectively. The LSD attack risk was significantly higher in small herds (risk ratio: [RR] 1.39; 95% CI: 1.27; 1.53) than large herds. In addition, significantly higher LSD attack risk was observed in semi-intensive management systems (RR=1.29; 95% CI: 1.01; 1.64) than intensive management systems. Moreover, it was also significantly higher in hut (RR=1.81; 95% CI: 1.12; 2.92), temporary (RR=1.62; 95% CI: 1.21; 2.17) and tin-shed houses (RR=1.29; 95% CI: 1.11; 1.51) than in semi-building houses. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first detailed epidemiological study of LSD emergence in South Asia. Female crossbred cattle in small herds under semi-intensive management should be prioritized for LSD surveillance and vaccination to prevent further outbreaks and control the impact of the disease in Bangladesh.

Providing for the People: Economic Change among the Salish and Kootenai Indians, 1875–1910 by Robert J. Bigart (review)

Reviewed by: Providing for the People: Economic Change among the Salish and Kootenai Indians, 1875–1910 by Robert J. Bigart Thomas Biolsi (bio) Providing for the People: Economic Change among the Salish and Kootenai Indians, 1875–1910 by Robert J. Bigart University of Oklahoma Press, 2020 ROBERT J. BIGART is librarian emeritus at Salish Kootenai College on the Flathead Reservation. Providing for the People is not a typical scholarly history. This is a detailed narrative of the gradual changes in the reservation economy of the Salish and Kootenai and the result of what the author describes as over fifty years of research. The narrative is focused largely on how Salish and Kootenai adapted—very effectively, it quickly becomes obvious—to changing circumstances, and description is tightly linked to the archival sources. The book is copiously documented and draws on the author's long career locating documents of many kinds. The main lesson of the narrative is abundantly clear: The Salish and Kootenai peoples made a gradual transition from dependence on hunting, fishing, and foraging to primary dependence upon cattle and farming by 1910 (although foraging continued to play a role in subsistence into the twentieth century). Another lesson is that this transition was made without any need for the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) to "civilize" or otherwise induce the Salish and Kootenai to farm; they made the transition on their own, with some very modest assistance from the agency in the form of seeds and farm implements (paid for with Indian labor). Furthermore, the Salish and Kootenai never became heavily dependent upon BIA rations. The picture Bigart carefully paints makes the reader wonder why on earth the transition to agriculture and "self-support" (as the BIA anxiously and judgmentally called it) was supposedly so vexed on other reservations—or even if the fraught histories of poverty and supposed resistance to agriculture on other reservations was more the outcome of the BIA failures than the "buffalo culture," much less the "indolence" of Native people. The last buffalo hunt took place in 1881, and at that point adaptations were already apparent on the reservation. Both horses and cattle were grazed on the open range (with an annual roundup); numbers varied by individual, of which 105 owned cattle. Most livestock were owned by mixedbloods and white men married into the tribes, but sixty-seven fullbloods owned at least some. The impact of family ownership of even a few cattle for cash sale [End Page 181] and for subsistence was, of course, significant. A good deal of small-scale farming was also taking place by 1881, including subsistence gardens, but also wheat and oats acreages (two to ten acres in the case of wheat). Notably, this was prior to the allotment of the reservation; there was no need to impose "private property" to induce what the BIA called "industry." Chiefs had an important role in allocating farmsteads and in adjudicating disputes over land (apparently there was little need for a Court of Indian Offenses). Even though economic productivity varied by family—a few families owned large herds or farms and also opened reservation businesses—one must consider that surviving traditional customs of pooling and sharing spread basic resources and even cash more widely than might be the case among non-Indians. The tribes also continued to forage both on and off the reservation (including deer, elk, trout, bitterroot, and berries); access to the original homelands beyond reservation boundaries was guaranteed by the terms of the Hellgate Treaty of 1855. Families that continued to rely on this source of subsistence combined it with livestock and farming, leaving for trips when crops or cattle did not need intensive attention. Gradually, the role of foraging in subsistence declined (but never disappeared), while cattle raising, farming, and (fairly limited) wage work became more prominent. The BIA agent reported in 1910 that "practically every family on the reservation is engaged in the cattle business to a certain extent, and the herds vary from two or three cows to as high as a thousand head of cattle" (144). It was the imposition of new laws in the twentieth century that put this Indigenous economic adaptation at risk. Most importantly...

Herd-level prevalence of Mycoplasma bovis in Swedish dairy herds determined by antibody ELISA and PCR on bulk tank milk and herd characteristics associated with seropositivity.

Mycoplasma bovis is an important pathogen causing pneumonia, mastitis, and arthritis in cattle, leading to reduced animal welfare and economic losses worldwide. In this cross-sectional study, we investigated the prevalence of M. bovis in bulk tank milk (BTM) and herd characteristics associated with a positive antibody test result in Swedish dairy herds. Bulk tank milk samples from all Swedish dairy herds (n = 3,144) were collected and analyzed with ID Screen antibody ELISA and PCR. Information on herd characteristics was collected from the national Dairy Herd Improvement database. To identify herd characteristics associated with the presence of antibodies in BTM, logistic regression was used in 4 different models. The apparent herd-level prevalence of M. bovis infection based on antibodies in BTM was 4.8%, with large regional differences ranging from 0 to 20%. None of the BTM samples was positive by PCR. All the antibody-positive herds were situated in the south of Sweden. The logistic regression model showed that larger herds had higher odds of detectable antibodies in BTM (herd size >120 cows, odds ratio = 8.8). An association was also found between antibodies in BTM and both a higher late calf mortality (2-6 mo) and a higher young stock mortality (6-15 mo). This study showed a clear regional difference in the apparent prevalence of M. bovis infection based on antibodies. The relatively low prevalence of M. bovis in Sweden is a strong motivator for the cattle industry to take steps to prevent further spread of the infection. It is essential that the M. bovis status of free herds be known, and the regional differences shown in this study suggest that testing is highly recommended when live cattle from high-prevalence areas are being introduced into herds. We do not recommend using PCR on BTM to detect infected herds, owing to the low detection frequency in this study.

Seroprevalence of Bluetongue Virus Antibodies in Ovine in Maji District of West Omo Zone, Southwest Ethiopia.

BackgroundBluetongue (BT) disease is an arthropod-transmitted viral disease of domestic and wild ruminant species caused by Bluetongue virus (BTV). It is of most importance in sheep and endemic primarily in the tropical and subtropical regions where vectors (Culicoides species) are present.Materials and MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in July–November 2019 to examine the seroprevalence of BTV infection in ovine in Maji district of West Omo zone. Serum samples were examined for the presence of specific antibodies of BTV using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) test. The collected data was coded and analyzed using STATA version 13 software. Associations between sero-prevalence and its risk factors were tested in a Chi-square analysis and with a P<0.05 were considered as statistically significant.ResultsThe individual animal prevalence was revealed as 39.23% (153/390). Herd size prevalence was: small size herd (37.42%; 61/163), medium size herd (32.35%; 55/170), and large size herd (64.91%; 37/57). Species-based prevalence showed ovine (38.00%; 141/371) and caprine (63.15%; 12/19). Age-based prevalence revealed adult (39.26%; 150/382) and young (37.5%; 3/8). The cumulative sex prevalence for both ovine and caprine was male (37.95%; 52/137) and female (39.92%; 101/253).ConclusionThe current prevalence of BTV antibodies in the area was found to be high. Lack of application of bluetongue disease control mechanisms like vaccination for the animals is a key factors for the high prevalence of the disease in the areas besides the existence of the vectors.

Association of Herd Size with Stillbirth and Dystocia Rates in Japanese Black Cattle.

Simple SummaryStillbirth and dystocia have a substantial impact on productivity and animal welfare in the beef industry. We previously elucidated risk factors for stillbirth and dystocia in the Japanese Black, the most common breed of beef cattle in Japan and known as Wagyu. Large variations in calving and calving management among different herd sizes were reported for beef cattle worldwide, but no published literature reported on the association between herd size and the stillbirth and dystocia rates in Japanese Black cattle. Here, we examined the effect of herd size on stillbirth and dystocia rates in Japanese Black cows. We found that the stillbirth rate was not associated with herd size, and the effect of herd size on stillbirth was independent of season, parity, and stage. In contrast, large farms had a lower dystocia rate than small and medium-sized farms, and higher dystocia on small farms compared to medium and large farms was found only in pregnancy of normal duration. This knowledge could contribute to designing and implementing an effective calving management system and finally decrease the burden on labor and clinical veterinarians.The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of herd size on stillbirth and dystocia rates; the relationships between herd size, calving season, parity, and gestation length in Japanese Black cattle were also explored. Data were collected for 41,184 calvings from 15,512 animals on 905 farms between 2006 and 2010. In this study, herds were classified into three groups based on size: small (1–10 cows), medium (11–50 cows), and large (≥51 cows). Herd size had an effect on the dystocia rate (p < 0.05) but not the stillbirth rate. Additionally, interactions between herd size and gestation length were associated with the dystocia rate (p < 0.05), and the dystocia rate was the highest in small herds, followed by medium and large herds for cows with a gestation length of 281–300 days, which is considered a pregnancy of normal duration. In summary, in Japanese Black cattle, there were different effects of herd size on the stillbirth rate and dystocia rates, as herd size was associated with the dystocia rate but not with the stillbirth rate.

Descriptive analysis of national bovine viral diarrhoea test data in England (2016-2020).

BackgroundBovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) causes substantial economic losses to the cattle industry; however, control and eradication can be achieved by identifying and removing persistently infected cattle from the herd. Each UK nation has separate control programmes. The English scheme, BVDFree, started in 2016 and is voluntary.MethodsWe analysed the test results submitted to BVDFree from 5847 herds between 2016 and 2020.ResultsIn 2020, 13.5% of beef breeders and 20.0% of dairy herds that submitted tests had at least one positive (virus/antibody) test result. Although lower than in previous years, there was no clear trend in the proportion of positive tests over time. In virus testing herds, 0.4% of individual tests were positive in 2020, and 1.5% of individual tests were positive in BVDV‐positive virus testing herds. Dairy herds and larger herds were more likely to join BVDFree, and dairy herds were also more likely to virus test than beef breeder herds. Larger herds, herds that used virus testing and herds that had BVDV‐positive test results were more likely to continue submitting tests to BVDFree.ConclusionsThe findings provide a benchmark for the status of BVDV control in England; continued analysis of test results will be important to assess progress towards eradication.

Managing biomass in semi-arid Burkina Faso: Strategies and levers for better crop and livestock production in contrasted farm systems

CONTEXTThe semi-arid zone of Burkina Faso is characterized by strong climate variability and declining soil fertility associated with low biomass production. OBJECTIVEThe main objective of this study was to identify key levers to improve biomass management in semi-arid Burkina Faso for diverse farm types. METHODSFarm diversity was captured with a statistical typology complemented by a participatory typology established with local farmers. Biomass management was described for the different farm types based on survey information obtained from 228 households across two villages. Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM) was conducted to represent biomass production strategies of each farm type. After a sensitivity analysis which revealed model robustness, scenario analysis was performed with the FCMs to explore farm type-specific options for alleviating biomass scarcity. Two contrasting scenarios were built based on observations and insights from the survey and focus group discussions with farmers and included (1) deliberate exchange of crop residue with manure, and (2) a subsidies policy allowing a reduction in prices of 30% for farm inputs coupled with increased off-farm revenue for the subsistence-oriented farms. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSThe statistical typology identified four farm types, distinguishing between subsistence or market-oriented farms and crop or livestock-oriented production. The participatory typology partly confirmed these four main types, even though other criteria of distinction were given by farmers. Different farm types used contrasted strategies in biomass production and management which were mainly driven by the total cultivated area and the herd size. The farm type with the largest herd and smallest cultivated land was the only one to rely on grain inflow from outside the farm to meet its household food requirement. The inflow of crop residue was also largest for this farm type. In contrast, crop residue outflow was mainly observed for the subsistence-oriented crop farm type, which had the smallest fodder needs. The scenario analysis using FCM suggested that biomass exchange had a negligible effect on farm performance but that the subsidy and income diversification scenario positively impacted crop and livestock production, especially for the subsistence-oriented types. SIGNIFICANCEOur study pointed out that FCM is a useful tool to not only describe system dynamics but also to reveal levers for improvement through sensitivity and scenario analysis. These levers included income diversification (for subsistence farms especially), improved production and storage of forage (for large herd owners), and investment into equipment and better access to markets (for market-oriented farms).

Young elephants in a large herd maintain high levels of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus-specific antibodies and do not succumb to fatal haemorrhagic disease.

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) have co-existed with elephants for millions of years, yet may cause fatal haemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD), typically in elephants between 1 and 10 years of age. EEHV is omnipresent in (sub)adult elephants, and young elephants with low EEHV-specific antibody levels are at risk for EEHV-HD, suggesting that fatal disease may occur due to an insufficiently controlled primary infection. To further address this hypothesis, sera of three large elephant cohorts were subjected to a multiple EEHV species ELISA: (I) 96 Asian elephants between 0 and 57 years, including 13 EEHV-HD fatalities, from European zoo herds typically sized five to six elephants, (II) a herd of 64 orphaned elephants aged 0-15 years at the Elephant Transit Home in Sri Lanka and (III) 31 elephants aged 8-63 years, part of a large herd of 93 elephants at Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage, Sri Lanka. All Sri Lankan elephants showed high EEHV-specific antibody levels regardless of their age. While antibody levels of most European zoo elephants were comparable to those of Sri Lankan elephants, the average antibody level of the European juveniles (1-5 years of age) was significantly lower than those of age-matched Sri Lankan individuals. Moreover, the European juveniles showed a gradual decrease between 1 and 4 years of age, to be attributed to waning maternal antibodies. Maintenance of high levels of antibodies in spite of waning maternal antibodies in young Sri Lankan elephants is likely due to the larger herd size that increases the likelihood of contact with EEHV-shedding elephants. Together with the observation that low levels of EEHV-specific antibodies correlate with increased numbers of EEHV-HD fatalities, these results suggest that infection in presence of high maternal antibody levels may protect calves from developing EEHV-HD, while at the same time activating an immune response protective in future encounters with this virus.

Estimation of partial lactation milk yields in Saanen goats raised in semi-intensive conditions

Objective: The objective of this study was to estimate the lactation curves of Saanen goats by using individual milk yields in the early, mid and 0-6 months periods of lactation. For this purpose, Wood’s lactation curve was used to estimate lactation yields. Material and Methods: Milk yields of Saanen goats in different periods of lactation were estimated. For this purpose, the Wood’s lactation curve model was adapted to a total of 480 milk yield measured at 14-day intervals of 40 Saanen goats. Milk yields of goats in the first three months of lactation in January-March, mid-lactation in April-June, and 0-6 months in January-June were estimated. Results: According to the harmony of Wood's model, the determination of coefficient values of the estimations of milk yields in the first, mid-lactation and 0-6 months of lactation are 0.84, 0.87 and 0.84, respectively. The root mean square errors of Wood's model are 0.91 for the first period of lactation, 0.81 for the mid-lactation period and 0.30 for the from 0 to 6 months of lactation period. Conclusions: According to the results obtained in this study, Wood's model was found sufficient to define the lactation curve in Saanen goats. However, it would be beneficial to conduct similar studies with larger herds and yield records.

Dairy cow and calf behavior and productivity when maintained together on a pasture-based system.

We determined the impact of maintaining pasture-based dairy cows and calves together over 100 days on cow milk production, cow and calf behavior, and calf liveweight and carcass quality. Six Holstein-Friesian cows and their male calves were monitored for 106±8.6 days. Cows were temporarily separated twice a day for milking with calves remaining in the paddock. Cow and calf behaviors were recorded via scan sampling at 6 different timepoints, for the first 7 days and twice a week thereafter. Calves were weighed weekly and immediately processed for meat quality and rumen development analysis at 106±8.6 days. Daily cow milk yields were collected from enrollment until 109±8.6 days (3 days post-weaning). The average daily gain of calves was 1.4±0.73 kg/d, with an average carcass dressing percentage of 59%. Calves had the greatest frequency of observed close proximity to cow and suckling in the first two weeks and decreased with experiment duration. During separation for milking, cow vocalizations and attempts to return to their calf decreased over time. Reticulorumen weight was on target for calf age, but as a proportion of total stomach weight was lower than industry averages of calves the same age due to the larger abomasum. Cows produced an average of 12±7.6 kg of milk yield per day over the 3-days before the calves were weaned and increased to mean of 31±8.3 kg/d the 3 days after weaning, indicating a consumption of close to 20 kg per calf per day. The impact of a pasture-based cow-calf rearing system on cow and calf behavior and the potential for high levels of calf liveweight gain when provided ad-libitum milk and feed were determined. Further research is required to determine the practicality of replicating such systems with large herds and impact on reared calves post-weaning.

Economic Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Dairy Farmers: A Case Study of Kozhikode District of Kerala

The present study assessed the multi-dimensional impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on dairy farmers based on primary data collected from 200 farmers of Kozhikode district, Kerala. A drop in milk prices and dry fodder shortage emerged as the major problem during the pandemic. The dairy farmers suffered an average loss of `7175 per milch animal. Farmers were selling milk directly to the consumer households, and those with larger herd sizes incurred comparatively higher losses. Search for new consumers, conversion of surplus milk to ghee and preparation of feed mix at home were the main coping strategies adopted by the farmers.

Were there royal herds? Understanding herd management and mobility using isotopic characterizations of cattle tooth enamel from Early Dynastic Ur.

During the third millennium BC, Mesopotamia (the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, in modern Iraq-Syria), was dominated by the world’s earliest cities and states, which were ruled by powerful elites. Ur, in present-day southern Iraq, was one of the largest and most important of these cities, and irrigation-based agriculture and large herds of domesticated animals were the twin mainstays of the economy and diet. Texts suggest that the societies of the Mesopotamian city-states were extremely hierarchical and underpinned by institutionalised and heavily-managed farming systems. Prevailing narratives suggest that the animal management strategies within these farming systems in the third millennium BC were homogenous. There have been few systematic science-based studies of human and animal diets, mobility, or other forms of human-animal interaction in Mesopotamia, but such approaches can inform understanding of past economies, including animal management, social hierarchies, diet and migration. Oxygen, carbon and strontium isotopic analysis of animal tooth enamel from both royal and private/non-royal burial contexts at Early Dynastic Ur (2900–2350 BC) indicate that a variety of herd management strategies and habitats were exploited. These data also suggest that there is no correlation between animal-management practices and the cattle found in royal or private/non-royal burial contexts. The results demonstrate considerable divergence between agro-pastoral models promoted by the state and the realities of day-to-day management practices. The data from Ur suggest that the animals exploited different plant and water sources, and that animals reared in similar ways ended up in different depositional contexts.

Multiplex qPCR for differentiation of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in active and passive infection of goats.

Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (MAP) is causative agent of Johne's disease (JD) in domestic animals and has broad host range. JD infected animals shed viable MAP in their milk, feces, blood, and tissues which get transmitted to human beings directly or indirectly by consumption of animal products, through contact, animal handling and through contaminated environment, aerosols. In this current study, we developed hydrolysis probe based TaqMan® real-time PCR assay where samples were investigated by targeting IS900 mRNA and ModD gene to differentiate live MAP shedders from inactive/dead MAP bacilli shedding animals. The IS900 mRNA and ModD gene primers were designed using discontiguous unique conserved sequences of IS900 more towards the 3' end and fibronectin attachment protein (FAP) genes, respectively. Two different reporter dyes Cy5 and TexasRed, with compatible quenchers BHQ-1 and BHQ-2, respectively, were used for probe designing of IS900 and ModD genes. Triplex PCR assay was developed by using serially diluted positive MAP culture in log10 dilution and probe and template titration. TaqMan® probe real-time PCR targeting IS900 mRNA and ModD gene detects the MAP infection at early stage with high sensitivity and specificity. The specificity of developed TaqMan probe real-time PCR was found to be high while validated by using Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus in addition to the MAP culture as there is no non-specific signal from other microbes. The sensitivity of developed TaqMan® probe real-time PCR was computed based on copy numbers ranged from 4.14 × 1011 to 4.14 × 104 for IS900 (FAM), 1.27 × 1011 to 1.27 × 104 for IS900 mRNA (Cy5), and 3.68 × 1010 to 3.68 × 104 for ModD (TexasRed), and lowest limit to detect MAP was 4.14 × 104, 1.27 × 104, and 3.68 × 104 copies for respective genes. This assay would be of great aid to contain the MAP infection in the large herd, where silent shedders spread active infection can be differentiated from passive shedding by non-infected animals. This test would also be equivalent to culture test in terms of specificity and hence can be able to be undertaken in molecular epidemiological studies to represent the actual disease prevalence in the future. KEY POINTS: • Multiplex mRNA-based qPCR was developed to identify the actively infective MAP bacilli from passive ones. • ModD and IS900 used as targets to assess active MAP bacilli in fecal samples of suspected animals. • The LOD was computed using copy numbers with 4.14 × 104 and 3.68 × 104 copies for IS900 and ModD, respectively.

Prevalence of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in Sheep at Babylon Governorate, Iraq

The current study aimed to determine the occurrence of the ovine respiratory syncytial virus (ORSV) infection in sheep employing sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (sandwich-ELISA) and look into some disease risk factors. We collected blood samples (n=460) from sheep of various ages and sexes in Babylon Governorate/Iraq. The epidemiological data obtained during the interview with the owners of the animals. The prevalence of ORSV infection at Babylon Governorate was 58.91% based on sandwich-ELISA. The risk factors related to ORSV infection included: sheep with 7months-2years old, imported animals, outdoor feeding, large herd size, in northern parts of the Governorate and winter and spring seasons. There was a significant elevation in RBC, Hb, PCV and a significant reduction in WBC and lymphocytes. There was a significant elevation in AST, CK, LDH, TP, globulin, and total bilirubin. At the same time, there was a significant reduction in albumin, creatinine, and glucose in the infected animals with ORSV. In conclusion, ORSV is prevalent in sheep at Babylon Governorate, with a higher prevalence of the disease in the northern parts of the Governorate. The present report is the first for detecting ORSV antigens in sheep at Babylon Governorate/Iraq.

Pastoral livelihood pathways transitions in northern Kenya: The process and impact of drought

Recurrent droughts and long-term changes to climate, social structures, and the economy in the world’s arid and semi-arid lands have impacted pastoralists’ livelihood activities over time, resulting in different livelihood pathways. Some pastoralists continue to follow more traditional strategies of herd accumulation, while others frequently engage in livestock markets and value addition activities, and others still are dropping out of pastoralism. Using data collected over 6 years from 924 households in northern Kenya and applying a generalized structural dynamic multinomial logit model, this study quantitatively determined the dynamic transitions between livelihood categories conditional on drought incidences. From the results, there were considerable and frequent transitions between livelihood pathways within the panel period (2009–2015). Notably, many households that started in the low-cash income, larger herd size category denoted as hanging in, were transitioning to lower cash income with small herds (dropping out). At the same time, there was a great deal of back and forth between the category with low-cash income and small herd size (dropping out) and the category with higher cash income and small herd size (moving out), indicating that moving out was the only way out of poverty. Also, an increase in vegetation index from a drought season where the index was at a 10% level to a good season where the level was 90% decreased the likelihood of households dropping out from a predicted probability of 37.9 to 28.7% and increased the likelihood of moving up and moving out from 22.2 to 25.0% and 22.6 to 34.3%, respectively, unconditionally. The study findings imply that any livelihood interventions aimed at reducing the impact of drought and alleviating poverty among pastoral households should support the transition to market-oriented, relatively successful pathways and also protect households from falling back into the ranks of poverty by dropping out.

Identifying-and-counting based monitoring scheme for pigs by integrating BLE tags and WBLCX antennas

Recently, the Internet of Things (IoT) technologies have been applied to pig monitoring. Among these, electronic tags help identify individual growing-finishing pigs. Nevertheless, the tags are insufficient to achieve accurate and reliable monitoring in pigsties. Instead, advanced processing data for individual behaviors, such as visit times in the feeding and resting areas and the number of movements between these areas, are required. Numerically measuring the movements of individual pigs in the pigsty is a precondition for obtaining these data. This paper proposes a monitoring scheme of a large herd of pigs for individual identification and counting. As a technical solution, a monitoring system is developed using Bluetooth low-energy (BLE) tags and wireless broadband leaky coaxial cable (WBLCX) antennas. The monitoring system collects access data transmitted from the BLE tags attached to individual pigs. Then the monitoring scheme estimates the location and movement of each pig by computing the collected data. A series of experiments was conducted to evaluate the detection characteristics between the BLE tags and the WBLCX antennas and to show their performances. In addition, the effectiveness for the proposed area-determination algorithm and the monitoring system was verified by field experiments on a pig farm in Japan. Our experimental results are summarized as follows. First, data comparisons between the area-determination algorithm and visual inspections confirmed the validity of the proposed monitoring scheme. Secondly, by the monitoring scheme, the area movements and the dwell times of pigs in a pigsty could be investigated. From the experimental results, the use of the proposed monitoring is expected to be able to observe the locations and movements for large herds of pigs in the pigsty. This paper proposes a monitoring scheme based on identifying and counting of individual pigs, explains the details of the monitoring scheme on the basis of hardware configurations, and verifies its effectiveness and feasibility via experiments.