Largest Emitter Of Greenhouse Gases Research Articles

An assessment of harvesting practices of sugarcane in the central region of Thailand

Expansion of sugarcane production for satisfying food and bioenergy demands along with decreasing availability of agricultural workers brings about the concerns on changing the traditional sugarcane cultivation and harvesting practice to mechanization. The study aims to assess the effect on climate change impact via life cycle greenhouse gas emissions along with harvesting costs from 5 current sugarcane harvesting practices in the central region of Thailand. The results show that harvested green cane using cutting machines has moderate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as compared to the other options but it has the highest harvesting cost due to the need for hiring cutting machines which can be quite expensive. Moreover, the insufficient availability of cutting machines in some areas has created a problem of system management. This has led farmers to choose the burning of cane as per the past practice due to the ease of finding labor. Therefore, it could be recommended that the actual cost of mechanized harvesting and good management of cutting machine services should be considered if we need to increase mechanical harvesting. There is no significant difference in the greenhouse gas emissions of various harvesting practices as the largest greenhouse gas emissions are actually from the land preparation stage. Even though the harvesting stage does not contribute much to the greenhouse gas emissions, there is still an opportunity for improvement of both GHG and cost performance for which measures are recommended. In addition, there is a need for further study on its contribution to other impacts such as microbiological properties of the soil and local air pollution from sugarcane trash burning.

MEDIÇÕES POR COVARIÂNCIA DE VÓRTICES TURBULENTOS DOS FLUXOS DE CALOR LATENTE, SENSÍVEL, MOMENTUM E CO2 SOBRE O RESERVATÓRIO DA USINA HIDRELÉTRICA DE CURUÁ-UNA – PA

Flux measurements of latent heat, sensible heat, momentum, and CO2 were performed from 15 to 26 June 2015 on the reservoir of the hydroelectric plant Curuá-Una (PA). The flux system is located upstream of the main channel of the reservoir and installed at 3 m above the water surface on a floating structure. The hydroelectric plant Curuá-Una was the first plant built in the Amazonia and it is in operation for almost 40 years. During installation, the vegetation around the river channel was not removed, which led to large emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The wind speed was important to maintain turbulent mixing mechanically. Latent heat flux showed significant correlation with the wind velocity (r = 82%). As a result of the combined effect of turbulent mixing generated thermally and mechanically, the latent and sensible heat fluxes were positive throughout the investigation period and the atmospheric surface layer remained unstable. The CO2 flow was predominantly negative (84%), characterizing the reservoir as a CO2 sink.

Water level, vegetation composition, and plant productivity explain greenhouse gas fluxes in temperate cutover fens after inundation

Abstract. Peat extraction leaves a land surface with a strong relief of deep cutover areas and higher ridges. Rewetting inundates the deep parts, while less deeply extracted zones remain at or above the water level. In temperate fens the flooded areas are colonized by helophytes such as Eriophorum angustifolium, Carex spp., Typha latifolia or Phragmites australis dependent on water depth. Reeds of Typha and Phragmites are reported as large sources of methane, but data on net CO2 uptake are contradictory for Typha and rare for Phragmites. Here, we analyze the effect of vegetation, water level and nutrient conditions on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for representative vegetation types along water level gradients at two rewetted cutover fens (mesotrophic and eutrophic) in Belarus. Greenhouse gas emissions were measured campaign-wise with manual chambers every 2 to 4 weeks for 2 years and interpolated by modelling. All sites had negligible nitrous oxide exchange rates. Most sites were carbon sinks and small GHG sources. Methane emissions generally increased with net ecosystem CO2 uptake. Mesotrophic small sedge reeds with water table around the land surface were small GHG sources in the range of 2.3 to 4.2 t CO2 eq. ha−1 yr−1. Eutrophic tall sedge – Typha latifolia reeds on newly formed floating mats were substantial net GHG emitters in the range of 25.1 to 39.1 t CO2 eq. ha−1 yr. They represent transient vegetation stages. Phragmites reeds ranged between −1.7 to 4.2 t CO2 eq. ha−1 yr−1 with an overall mean GHG emission of 1.3 t CO2 eq. ha−1 yr−1. The annual CO2 balance was best explained by vegetation biomass, which includes the role of vegetation composition and species. Methane emissions were obviously driven by biological activity of vegetation and soil organisms. Shallow flooding of cutover temperate fens is a suitable measure to arrive at low GHG emissions. Phragmites australis establishment should be promoted in deeper flooded areas and will lead to moderate, but variable GHG emissions or even occasional sinks. The risk of large GHG emissions is higher for eutrophic than mesotrophic peatlands. Nevertheless, flooding of eutrophic temperate fens still represents a safe GHG mitigation option because even the hotspot of our study, the floating tall sedge – Typha latifolia reeds, did not exceed the typical range of GHG emissions from drained fen grasslands and the spatially dominant Phragmites australis reed emitted by far less GHG than drained fens.

Actions and opinions of Brazilian farmers who shift to sugarcane⿿an interview-based assessment with discussion of implications for land-use change

Sugarcane ethanol systems can deliver large greenhouse gas emissions savings if emissions associated with land-use change are kept low. This qualitative study documents and analyzes actions and opinions among Brazilian farmers who shift to sugarcane production. Semi-structured interviews were held with 28 actors associated with sugarcane production in three different regions: one traditional sugarcane region and two regions where sugarcane is currently expanding. Most farmers considered sugarcane a land diversification option with relatively low economic risk, although higher risk than their previous land use. Beef production was considered a low-risk option, but less profitable than sugarcane. In conjunction with converting part of their land to sugarcane, most farmers maintained and further intensified their previous agricultural activity, often beef production. Several farmers invested in expanded production in other regions with relatively low land prices. Very few farmers in the expansion regions shifted all their land from the former, less profitable, use to sugarcane. Very few farmers in this study had deforested any land in connection with changes made when shifting to sugarcane. The respondents understand ⿿environmental friendliness⿿ as compliance with the relevant legislation, especially the Brazilian Forest Act, which is also a requirement for delivering sugarcane to the mills. Indirect land-use change is not a concern for the interviewed farmers, and conversion of forests and other native vegetation into sugarcane plantations is uncontroversial if legal. We derive hypotheses regarding farmers⿿ actions and opinions from our results. These hypotheses aim to contribute to better understanding of what takes place in conjunction with expansion of sugarcane and can, when tested further, be of use in developing, e.g., policies for iLUC-free biofuel production.

Could more civil society involvement increase public support for climate policy-making? Evidence from a survey experiment in China

Abstract Governments need the support of their citizens in order to be able to adopt and implement ambitious environmental protection policies. Recent research on liberal democratic systems has found evidence that increased civil society organization involvement can help increase the popular legitimacy of (that is, public support for) such policy-making. We are interested in whether this finding is also relevant to other types of political systems. To find out we implemented a survey experiment in China (N = 932). The empirical focus is on climate policy, a paradigmatic global governance effort, in which China, the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases, plays a key role. The results show that people welcome the involvement of civil society actors – with the exception of business civil society organizations – in climate policy-making, though most participants in our survey experiment did not favor civil society organizations over government agencies. They also show, however, that moving from non-inclusion to inclusion of civil society organizations improves people’s assessment of transparency and representational quality of climate governance (two key facets of input or procedural legitimacy) by 14 and 24% respectively. Our findings suggest that – even though few civil society organizations are currently independent from government in China – increased civil society organizations involvement in climate policy-making could contribute to enhancing public support for climate policy. In view of great challenges China faces in implementing its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) within the Paris Agreement framework, its climate policy could thus benefit from greater involvement of civil society organizations.

Climate Change & India: Paris & Beyond

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 21st Conference of the Parties (COP-21) took place from November 30 to December 12, 2015 in Paris, and it has been hailed as one of the most important climate change conferences to date. 177 countries have ratified the Paris Agreement as of June 21, 2016, including the US and India. This is also significant in the context of the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which have replaced the Millennium Development Goals as of 2015. Of the 17 goals, Goal 13 is "Climate Action".At COP-21, countries committed to aim to keep global temperatures from rising more than 2°C (3.6°F) by 2100 with an ideal target of keeping temperature rise below 1.5°C (2.7°F). The Agreement will also encourage trillions of dollars of capital to be spent adapting to the effects of climate change — including infrastructure like sea walls and programs to deal with poor soil — and developing renewable energy sources like solar and wind power.India is now the world's fastest-growing economy, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and India is set to become the world's most populous country in just seven years, according to the UN. India's is the world’s 3rd largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHGs), behind #1 China and #2 United States. However, India is "energy poor", based on the percentage of the population without access to stable electricity, which amounts to roughly 300 million people. The big win for India in the Paris Agreement is the inclusion of the phrase "common but differentiated responsibilities" recognizing the different national circumstances of developed and developing countries. Over the years, Indian climate politics has been shaped by the need to balance dual but contradictory objectives: India needs an effective climate agreement to protect its population against climate change impacts, but it also needs sufficient low-cost energy for development and growth.

IS SUPPORT FOR INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE ACTION CONDITIONAL ON PERCEPTIONS OF RECIPROCITY? EVIDENCE FROM SURVEY EXPERIMENTS IN CANADA, THE US, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN

The challenges of collective action are presented by leaders in many industrialized countries as a major obstacle to effective action on climate change. Notably, the argument goes, a fair international solution must appropriately constrain large greenhouse gas emitters like China. This paper asks whether citizen support for multilateral climate policies also depends on whether other countries are seen to reciprocate. We analyze results from population-based survey experiments in the US, Canada, Norway, and Sweden, asking subjects whether they think their country should commit internationally to emission reductions. Randomly assigned sub-samples were presented with statements suggesting that China may or may not choose to cooperate, or alternatively making no mention of China. We find that reciprocity is important to respondents in the smaller Scandinavian countries but not in North America. These findings suggest that country size is more important than national traditions of multilateral cooperation in predicting support for unilateral climate action.

Внесок України до нової Глобальної кліматичної угоди

The article shows that Ukraine's participation in the new global climate agreement (Paris Agreement) has a great potential for the country, including financial, technological, intellectual and other benefits. The reason is that the agreement is aimed at raising, by 2025, at least 100 bn USD, from which Ukraine can benefit to modernize the economy, increase welfare and take the path of low-emission development. This path provides a permanent growth capability for the economy without an increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and impact on the environment, which is referred to as decoupling. Before the adoption of the Paris Agreement, Ukraine, like other countries, submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC), which stipulates the goal of not exceeding, 60% of country's 1990 level of GHG emissions in 2030. The article proves that such a goal is not enough ambitious, because Ukraine can reach it with a minimal effort. Ukraine has a great potential to reduce GHG emissions to 35-40% of 1990 level by 2030, although for its implementation, considerable investments are needed (from 75 to 100 bn EUR by 2030). Insufficient justification of the commitments (targets) may become an obstacle to attracting enough investments. Therefore, Ukraine should reconsider its commitments under the Paris Agreement before it enters into force. At the same time, it should be noted that Ukraine to a great extent accounted for the principle of fairness in defining its INDC targets (at least at this stage), because, since 1990, country has made a significant contribution to reducing global GHG emissions, although it was accompanied by significant GDP and output decline. In addition, analysis of the INDC objectives of the large GHG emitters shows that their commitments allow them to significantly increase global emissions.

Toward consistency between trends in bottom-up CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and top-down atmospheric measurements in the Los Angeles megacity

Abstract. Large urban emissions of greenhouse gases result in large atmospheric enhancements relative to background that are easily measured. Using CO2 mole fractions and Δ14C and δ13C values of CO2 in the Los Angeles megacity observed in inland Pasadena (2006–2013) and coastal Palos Verdes peninsula (autumn 2009–2013), we have determined time series for CO2 contributions from fossil fuel combustion (Cff) for both sites and broken those down into contributions from petroleum and/or gasoline and natural gas burning for Pasadena. We find a 10 % reduction in Pasadena Cff during the Great Recession of 2008–2010, which is consistent with the bottom-up inventory determined by the California Air Resources Board. The isotopic variations and total atmospheric CO2 from our observations are used to infer seasonality of natural gas and petroleum combustion. The trend of CO2 contributions to the atmosphere from natural gas combustion is out of phase with the seasonal cycle of total natural gas combustion seasonal patterns in bottom-up inventories but is consistent with the seasonality of natural gas usage by the area's electricity generating power plants. For petroleum, the inferred seasonality of CO2 contributions from burning petroleum is delayed by several months relative to usage indicated by statewide gasoline taxes. Using the high-resolution Hestia-LA data product to compare Cff from parts of the basin sampled by winds at different times of year, we find that variations in observed fossil fuel CO2 reflect seasonal variations in wind direction. The seasonality of the local CO2 excess from fossil fuel combustion along the coast, on Palos Verdes peninsula, is higher in autumn and winter than spring and summer, almost completely out of phase with that from Pasadena, also because of the annual variations of winds in the region. Variations in fossil fuel CO2 signals are consistent with sampling the bottom-up Hestia-LA fossil CO2 emissions product for sub-city source regions in the LA megacity domain when wind directions are considered.

The Cop21 Agreement and Asian Economies

The global agreement on climate change – COP21 – will have immediate consequences upon the large emitters of greenhouse gases (GHG) in Asia. From 2018 there can be no increases of GHG:s and preferable some decreases. The unique global agreement speaks little about the economic consequences, but emissions and GDP are strongly linked through energy consumption. This article shows the situation for major economies in Asia with regard to the connection between GDP and GHG:s. It remains to be seen how the implementation of this global treaty will play out. Whether it has the force of public international law remains to be tested as well as whether all countries will ratify the treaty and abide by it. Several Asian countries have only 2 years to make major changes. DOI: 10.20448/journal.506/2016.3.1/506.1.1.9

Hopes of Limiting Global Warming?

(ProQuest: ... denotes non-US-ASCII text omitted.)IntroductionClimate change is closely related to the rise of the global economy since the industrial revolution. As scientific evidence shows, the increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is attributable to human activities since WWII, leading to global warming, rising sea levels, and more frequent occurrences of extreme weather. (1) Scientists warned that immediate action must be taken by the international community if we are to stop the globe from warming more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels and avoid catastrophic ecological consequences. The recent Paris Climate Summit from 30 November to 12 December 2015, officially referred to as the 21stConference of Parties (COP 21) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was an important part of the international efforts to tackle climate change. Over the past few decades, the international community has been working together to better understand the extent of climate change and what actions are required to mitigate it. These efforts were crystallised in the establishment of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 with the mandate to assess the state of climate change, and the signing of the UNFCCC in 1992, which laid the foundation for further international cooperation. (2)The Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which required developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas emission, was an historic international agreement on climate change. Nevertheless, it did not bear much fruit without the participation of the United States. For this reason, many observers called for a new international agreement to be reached as a matter of urgency. The COP 21 in Paris was therefore highly anticipated. Prior to the conference, each participant country was invited to make pledges of carbon emission reduction according to their respective capabilities, known as Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC). Although some NGO studies doubt the effectiveness of the INDCs to limit the world temperature increase to less than 2°C,(3)the bottom-up approach implied by the concept of INDC is seen as more practical and promising to the climate change problem. (4) As the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases and the world's second largest economy, China has become an important force that heavily influences the failure or success of cooperation on climate change. In the following, I would like to discuss the role of China in the making of the Paris Agreement, the reasons for China's active role in forging international cooperation on climate change, and the challenges it faces in taking action against climate change.China and the Paris Climate SummitSince the start of international cooperation on climate change, China has undergone tremendous changes in many respects. Economic reform has increased China's trade with the outside world. Its accession to the World Trade Organisation (WTO) made China the World's Factory and helped it accumulate unprecedented wealth. In tandem with its economic achievements, the volume of carbon emission increased exponentially for China, and it has surpassed the United States as the world's largest carbon emitter since 2005 (see Graph 1).From the perspective of China's leaders in the 1990s, environmental degradation was a necessary price to pay in order to alleviate large-scale poverty. As a corollary, China was not supposed to cut carbon emission levels, and developed countries were to contribute to the transfer of technology to developing countries so as to facilitate the control of global carbon emission. (5) China's leaders were also cautious about the possibility of foreign powers attempting to interfere in China's domestic affairs in the name of environmental protection. (6)Since the 2000s, tensions have developed between China's position on its global environmental obligations and the expectations of the international community. …

Socioeconomic Effects of Reducing Household Carbon Footprints Through Meat Consumption Taxes

ABSTRACTBeef and sheep products represent the largest emitters of greenhouse gases within the meat group. One way of encouraging Scottish households to substitute purchasing lower carbon footprint meat products such as chicken is through a carbon consumption tax. In this article, the effects of such a tax were studied using a dynamic per capita error correction version of the almost ideal demand system (AIDS). The data used in the analysis were from a Scottish household panel dataset for the years 2006–2011, which allowed disaggregation by three socioeconomic groups. The results suggest that the net application of meat taxes is likely to reduce demand for beef and sheep products irrespective of socioeconomic group. Application of all meat carbon consumption taxes has the potential to reduce household demand for meat products, resulting in a likely 10.5% reduction in Scottish meat emissions.

Utilization of waste heat from rotary kiln for burning clinker in the cement plant

Cement subsector next to the glass industry is counted among one of the most energy-intensive industries, which absorbs approx. 12-15% of the total energy consumed by the industry. In the paper various methods of energy consumption reduction of in the cement industry are discussed. Cement production carries a very large emissions of greenhouse gases, where CO2 emissions on a global scale with the industry than approx. 5%. Great opportunity in CO2 emissions reduction in addition to the recovery of waste heat is also alternative fuels co-firing in cement kilns [1], [2]. In the cement sector interest in fitting-usable waste energy is growing in order to achieve high rates of savings and hence the financial benefits, as well as the environment ones [3]. In the process of cement production is lost irretrievably lot of energy and reduction of these losses on a global scale gives a visible saving of consumed fuel. The aim of this study is to investigate the possibility of waste heat use in Rudniki Cement Plant near to Czestochowa. After analyzing of all waste heat sources will be analyzed the heat emitted by radiation from the surface of the rotary kiln at the relevant facility. On the basis of thermal-flow calculations the most favorable radiative heat exchanger will be designed. The calculations based on available measurements provided by the cement plant, a thermal power of the heat exchanger, the heat exchange surface, the geometry of the heat exchanger, and other important parameters will be established. In addition the preliminary calculations of hydraulic losses and set directions for further work will be carried out. Direct benefits observed with the introduction of the broader heat recovery technology, is a significant increase in energy efficiency of the industrial process, which is reflected in the reduction of energy consumption and costs. Indirectly it leads to a reduction of pollution and energy consumption.

Cellulosic Ethanol (Energy Security and Climate Change Mitigation): A Review

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission is the most talked about issue especially since last decade. The rising pressure to cut emission for maintaining the ecological balance creates immediate rush for understanding the carbon emission process and development of strategies for its mitigation. Transportation sector is one of the primary sources of emission because of gigantic consumption of petroleum fuels. It is the second largest emitter of GHG which gets accumulated in the atmosphere and a reason of global warming. The rising oil import is the second shortcoming which is associated with petroleum fuels. It is the primary cause of depletion in foreign exchange reserves and trade deficit. In this study, cellulosic ethanol has been considered as a solution for these problems because of its ability to blend with gasoline. After blending, it reduces emission and if produced domestically decreases fuel import dependency substantially.

Analysis of Agricultural Commodities Value Chains and Greenhouse Gas Emission in Rice and Maize in West Africa: Impact on Food Security

This paper analyses the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission along the value chains of two strategic commodities in West Africa (rice and maize) in four pilot countries: Ghana, Senegal Benin and Cote D’Ivoire. The Value Chains Analysis and Greenhouse model used in this study, provides insight into the relationship between output maximization and GHG emissions to help define optimal intervention approaches that minimize emissions while maximizing the potential yield, hence boost food security. It highlights intervention measures for improvement of production and productivity along with the identification of mitigation measures to reduce GHG emissions. It also revealed that the largest GHG emission factor from maize farming in the selected countries is from the application of nitrogen fertilizers (NO2), and for rice farming, depending on the systems, e.g. rain fed, irrigated or multiple aeration, the emission is mostly due to anaerobic decomposition of methane (CH4) which increases with flooding practice.

Integrated spatial technology to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions in grain production

The causes and implications of climate change are currently at the forefront of many researching agendas. Countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol are bound by agreements to focus on and reduce greenhouse gas emissions which impact on the natural and anthropogenic environment. Internationally agriculture contributes to environmental impacts such as land use change, loss of biodiversity, greenhouse gas emissions, increased soil salinity, soil acidity and soil erosion. To combat and control the greenhouse gas emissions generated during agricultural production, methodologies are being developed and investigated worldwide. Agriculture is the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases in Australia and consequently the integrated spatial technology was developed using data from a crop rotation project conducted by the Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. The aim of the integrated spatial technology was to combine remote sensing, geographical information systems and life cycle assessment, to ascertain the component or system within the agricultural production cycle, generating the most greenhouse gases. Cleaner production strategies were then used to develop mitigation measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases within the integrated spatial technology.

Estimating greenhouse gas emissions from future Amazonian hydroelectric reservoirs

Brazil plans to meet the majority of its growing electricity demand with new hydropower plants located in the Amazon basin. However, large hydropower plants located in tropical forested regions may lead to significant carbon dioxide and methane emission. Currently, no predictive models exist to estimate the greenhouse gas emissions before the reservoir is built. This paper presents two different approaches to investigate the future carbon balance of eighteen new reservoirs in the Amazon. The first approach is based on a degradation model of flooded carbon stock, while the second approach is based on flux data measured in Amazonian rivers and reservoirs. The models rely on a Monte Carlo simulation framework to represent the balance of the greenhouse gases into the atmosphere that results when land and river are converted into a reservoir. Further, we investigate the role of the residence time/stratification in the carbon emissions estimate. Our results imply that two factors contribute to reducing overall emissions from these reservoirs: high energy densities reservoirs, i.e., the ratio between the installed capacity and flooded area, and vegetation clearing. While the models’ uncertainties are high, we show that a robust treatment of uncertainty can effectively indicate whether a reservoir in the Amazon will result in larger greenhouse gas emissions when compared to other electricity sources.

China is a Key to Mitigate Global Climate Change

This paper attempts to discuss China’s response on the global climate change. China, well known as the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases, the largest energy consumer and the second largest economy in the world, contributes for a third of the planet’s greenhouse gas output and has one of the world’s most polluted cities that surpassed United States and India. China’s economy growth has changed its perception on how they should cultivate their land, water, and natural resources. This economic expansion which is driven by fossil fuels, has led to dramatic increases in emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). The world concerns on environmental problems in China because it influences the world whether pattern, it effects human life and it influences global community market. Keywords: Greenhouse Gases, Environmental Problems, Economy Growth

Support for renewable energy in China: a survey experiment with internet users

Mitigating climate change requires reductions of carbon dioxide emissions and other greenhouse gases. Because China is the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases, global efforts to stop climate change depend on China's policies. While renewable energy can replace coal in power generation to reduce carbon pollution, the perceptions of renewable energy among the Chinese public have not been studied. People's perceptions are important because, although China is not a democracy, existing studies have shown that the government's legitimacy depends on popular support. This article reports results from an online survey experiment among 2086 Chinese internet users. This methodology allows the exploration of the responsiveness of Chinese respondents to various frames of the benefits and costs of renewable energy. The levels of support for renewable energy among the respondents were high. There was a positive and statistically significant response to an energy security framing, while neither the air pollution nor the climate change frames had a statistically significant effect on the levels of public support. Economic concerns are also salient to the respondents, as a counter-frame emphasizing the cost of renewables undermined the effectiveness of the energy security frame. Similar to studies from other countries, the cost and security of energy generation are priorities for the respondents. If these findings apply more broadly to the Chinese public, the government can create public support for renewables by emphasizing energy security in communication.

Life cycle impact assessment of beverage packaging systems: focus on the collection of post-consumer bottles

Choice of packaging material has a significant contribution to the overall impact of beverage value chain. Collection of post-consumer packaging materials is often controlled by national or regional regulation, which have to be based on sound considerations. Therefore, stakeholders alongside the packaging value chain need for supporting information to select environmentally sound packaging and define own policy. To meet comprehensiveness, five different packaging materials were examined during their whole life cycle. Due to the potentially direct impact of collection system on the human population, and lacking information on such an analysis in recent literature, we were focussing in detail on six bottle collection systems such as kerbside bin, kerbside bag, deposit-refund, combinations with thermal compression of plastic bottles as well as an attempt made toward examining refill-bottles.Recycling allowed saving large amount greenhouse gas emission particularly in the case of aluminium can and glass-bottle. An appropriate managed packaging system supporting the bottle-to-bottle recycling can make aluminium cans beneficial in contrast to small polyethylene terephthalate bottles. From the post-consumer bottle collection point of view, the kerbside bag showed the best results followed by deposit-refund system and kerbside containers. Even though refilling of bottles leads to decreasing greenhouse gas emission, it became less significant after a certain number of reuse.It was shown that the fostering of participation of consumers in collection via aimed policy is highly important. Kerbside bag collection is the most favourable solution, although subtle differences between the distinct selective collection-systems suggested the importance of case-specific examinations. For example, using deposit-refund system resulted in excellent environmental profile, as well, like kerbside bag system. Usage of thermal compressing of plastic bottles in value chain of collection showed large environmental impacts, despite achieving significant smaller volume for transportation, which should lead to lower impacts. Furthermore, usage of refill system has to be deeply analysed to estimate the number of refills and transport distances, which allows maximizing its environmental benefits.