Large Dense-core Vesicles Research Articles

Presynaptic sensor and silencer of peptidergic transmission reveal neuropeptides as primary transmitters in pontine fear circuit

Neurons produce and release neuropeptides to communicate with one another. Despite their importance in brain function, circuit-based mechanisms of peptidergic transmission are poorly understood, primarily due to the lack of tools for monitoring and manipulating neuropeptide release invivo. Here, we report the development of two genetically encoded tools for investigating peptidergic transmission in behaving mice: a genetically encoded large dense core vesicle (LDCV) sensor that detects presynaptic neuropeptide release and a genetically encoded silencer that specifically degrades neuropeptides inside LDCVs. Using these tools, we show that neuropeptides, not glutamate, encode the unconditioned stimulus in the parabrachial-to-amygdalar threat pathway during Pavlovian threat learning. We also show that neuropeptides play important roles in encoding positive valence and suppressing conditioned threat response in the amygdala-to-parabrachial endogenous opioidergic circuit. These results show that our sensor and silencer for presynaptic peptidergic transmission are reliable tools to investigate neuropeptidergic systems in awake, behaving animals.

Amperometry and Electron Microscopy show Stress Granules Induce Homotypic Fusion of Catecholamine Vesicles.

An overreactive stress granule (SG) pathway and long-lived, stable SGs formation are thought to participate in the progress of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). To understand if and how SGs contribute to disorders of neurotransmitter release in NDs, we examined the interaction between extracellular isolated SGs and vesicles. Amperometry shows that the vesicular content increases and dynamics of vesicle opening slow down after vesicles are treated with SGs, suggesting larger vesicles are formed. Data from transmission electron microscopy (TEM) clearly shows that a portion of large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs) with double/multiple cores appear, thus confirming that SGs induce homotypic fusion between LDCVs. This might be a protective step to help cells to survive following high oxidative stress. A hypothetical mechanism is proposed whereby enriched mRNA or protein in the shell of SGs is likely to bind intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) regions of vesicle associated membrane protein (VAMP) driving a disrupted membrane between two closely buddled vesicles to fuse with each other to form double-core vesicles. Our results show that SGs induce homotypic fusion of LDCVs, providing better understanding of how SGs intervene in pathological processes and opening a new direction to investigations of SGs involved neurodegenerative disease.

Amperometry and Electron Microscopy show Stress Granules Induce Homotypic Fusion of Catecholamine Vesicles

AbstractAn overreactive stress granule (SG) pathway and long‐lived, stable SGs formation are thought to participate in the progress of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). To understand if and how SGs contribute to disorders of neurotransmitter release in NDs, we examined the interaction between extracellular isolated SGs and vesicles. Amperometry shows that the vesicular content increases and dynamics of vesicle opening slow down after vesicles are treated with SGs, suggesting larger vesicles are formed. Data from transmission electron microscopy (TEM) clearly shows that a portion of large dense‐core vesicles (LDCVs) with double/multiple cores appear, thus confirming that SGs induce homotypic fusion between LDCVs. This might be a protective step to help cells to survive following high oxidative stress. A hypothetical mechanism is proposed whereby enriched mRNA or protein in the shell of SGs is likely to bind intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) regions of vesicle associated membrane protein (VAMP) driving a disrupted membrane between two closely buddled vesicles to fuse with each other to form double‐core vesicles. Our results show that SGs induce homotypic fusion of LDCVs, providing better understanding of how SGs intervene in pathological processes and opening a new direction to investigations of SGs involved neurodegenerative disease.

Pre-fusion motion state determines the heterogeneity of membrane fusion dynamics for large dense-core vesicles.

In neuroendocrine cells, large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs) undergo highly regulated pre-fusion processes before releasing hormones via membrane fusion. Significant heterogeneity has been found for LDCV population based on the dynamics of membrane fusion. However, how the pre-fusion status impacts the heterogeneity of LDCVs still remains unclear. Hence, we explored pre-fusion determinants of heterogeneous membrane fusion procedure of LDCV subpopulations. We assessed the pre-fusion motion of two LDCV subpopulations with distinct membrane fusion dynamics individually, using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. These two subpopulations were isolated by blocking Rho GTPase-dependent actin reorganization using Clostridium difficile toxin B (ToxB), which selectively targets the fast fusion vesicle pool. We found that the fast fusion subpopulation was in an active motion mode prior to release, termed "active" LDCV pool, while vesicles from the slow fusion subpopulation were also moving but in a significantly more confined status, forming an "inert" pool. The depletion of the active pool by ToxB also eliminated fast fusion vesicles and was not rescued by pre-treatment with phorbol ester. A mild actin reorganization blocker, latrunculin A, that partially disrupted the active pool, only slightly attenuated the fast fusion subpopulation. The pre-fusion motion state of LDCVs also exhibits heterogeneity and dictates the heterogeneous fusion pore dynamics. Rearrangement of F-actin network mediates vesicle pre-fusion motion and subsequently determines the membrane fusion kinetics.

A conserved electrostatic membrane-binding surface in synaptotagmin-like proteins revealed using molecular phylogenetic analysis and homology modeling.

Protein structure prediction has emerged as a core technology for understanding biomolecules and their interactions. Here, we combine homology-based structure prediction with molecular phylogenetic analysis to study the evolution of electrostatic membrane binding among the vertebrate synaptotagmin-like protein (Slp) family. Slp family proteins play key roles in the membrane trafficking of large dense-core secretory vesicles. Our previous experimental and computational study found that the C2A domain of Slp-4 (also called granuphilin) binds with high affinity to anionic phospholipids in the cytoplasmic leaflet of the plasma membrane through a large positively charged protein surface centered on a cluster of phosphoinositide-binding lysine residues. Because this surface contributes greatly to Slp-4 C2A domain membrane binding, we hypothesized that the net charge on the surface might be evolutionarily conserved. To test this hypothesis, the known C2A sequences of Slp-4 among vertebrates were organized by class (from mammalia to pisces) using molecular phylogenetic analysis. Consensus sequences for each class were then identified and used to generate homology structures, from which Poisson-Boltzmann electrostatic potentials were calculated. For comparison, homology structures and electrostatic potentials were also calculated for the five human Slp protein family members. The results demonstrate that the charge on the membrane-binding surface is highly conserved throughout the evolution of Slp-4, and more highly conserved than many individual residues among the human Slp family paralogs. Such molecular phylogenetic-driven computational analysis can help to describe the evolution of electrostatic interactions between proteins and membranes which are crucial for their function.

Prion protein conversion at two distinct cellular sites precedes fibrillisation

The self-templating nature of prions plays a central role in prion pathogenesis and is associated with infectivity and transmissibility. Since propagation of proteopathic seeds has now been acknowledged a principal pathogenic process in many types of dementia, more insight into the molecular mechanism of prion replication is vital to delineate specific and common disease pathways. By employing highly discriminatory anti-PrP antibodies and conversion-tolerant PrP chimera, we here report that de novo PrP conversion and formation of fibril-like PrP aggregates are distinct in mechanistic and kinetic terms. De novo PrP conversion occurs within minutes after infection at two subcellular locations, while fibril-like PrP aggregates are formed exclusively at the plasma membrane, hours after infection. Phenotypically distinct pools of abnormal PrP at perinuclear sites and the plasma membrane show differences in N-terminal processing, aggregation state and fibril formation and are linked by exocytic transport via synaptic and large-dense core vesicles.

Untapped Potential: Real-Time Measurements of Opioid Exocytosis at Single Cells.

The endogenous opioid system is commonly targeted in pain treatment, but the fundamental nature of neuropeptide release remains poorly understood due to a lack of methods for direct detection of specific opioid neuropeptides in situ. These peptides are concentrated in, and released from, large dense-core vesicles in chromaffin cells. Although catecholamine release from these neuroendocrine cells is well characterized, the direct quantification of opioid peptide exocytosis events has not previously been achieved. In this work, a planar carbon-fiber microelectrode served as a "postsynaptic" sensor for probing catecholamine and neuropeptide release dynamics via amperometric monitoring. A constant potential of 500 mV was employed for quantification of catecholamine release, and a higher potential of 1000 mV was used to drive oxidation of tyrosine, the N-terminal amino acid in the opioid neuropeptides released from chromaffin cells. By discriminating the results collected at the two potentials, the data reveal unique kinetics for these two neurochemical classes at the single-vesicle level. The amplitude of the peptidergic signals decreased with repeat stimulation, as the halfwidth of these signals simultaneously increased. By contrast, the amplitude of catecholamine release events increased with repeat stimulation, but the halfwidth of each event did not vary. The chromogranin dense core was identified as an important mechanistic handle by which separate classes of transmitter can be kinetically modulated when released from the same population of vesicles. Overall, the data provide unprecedented insight into key differences between catecholamine and opioid neuropeptide release from isolated chromaffin cells.

Changes in neuropeptide large dense core vesicle trafficking dynamics contribute to adaptive responses to a systemic homeostatic challenge

Neuropeptides are packed into large dense core vesicles (LDCVs) that are transported from the soma out into their processes. Limited information exists regarding mechanisms regulating LDCV trafficking, particularly during challenges to bodily homeostasis. Addressing this gap, we used 2-photon imaging in an exvivo preparation to study LDCVs trafficking dynamics in vasopressin (VP) neurons, which traffic and release neuropeptide from their dendrites and axons. We report a dynamic bidirectional trafficking of VP-LDCVs with important differences in speed and directionality between axons and dendrites. Acute, short-lasting stimuli known to alter VP firing activity and axonal/dendritic release caused modest changes in VP-LDCVs trafficking dynamics. Conversely, chronic/sustained systemic osmotic challenges upregulated VP-LDCVs trafficking dynamic, with a larger effect in dendrites. These results support differential regulation of dendritic and axonal LDCV trafficking, and that changes in trafficking dynamics constitute a novel mechanism by which peptidergic neurons can efficiently adapt to conditions of increased hormonal demand.

Identification of the functional domain of the dense core vesicle biogenesis factor HID-1.

Large dense core vesicles (LDCVs) mediate the regulated release of neuropeptides and peptide hormones. HID-1 is a trans-Golgi network (TGN) localized peripheral membrane protein contributing to LDCV formation. There is no information about HID-1 structure or domain architecture, and thus it remains unknown how HID-1 binds to the TGN and performs its function. We report that the N-terminus of HID-1 mediates membrane binding through a myristoyl group with a polybasic amino acid patch but lacks specificity for the TGN. In addition, we show that the C-terminus serves as the functional domain. Indeed, this isolated domain, when tethered to the TGN, can rescue the neuroendocrine secretion and sorting defects observed in HID-1 KO cells. Finally, we report that a point mutation within that domain, identified in patients with endocrine and neurological deficits, leads to loss of function.

A Biomimetic C-Terminal Extension Strategy for Photocaging Amidated Neuropeptides.

Photoactivatable neuropeptides offer a robust stimulus-response relationship that can drive mechanistic studies into the physiological mechanisms of neuropeptidergic transmission. The majority of neuropeptides contain a C-terminal amide, which offers a potentially general site for installation of a C-terminal caging group. Here, we report a biomimetic caging strategy in which the neuropeptide C-terminus is extended via a photocleavable amino acid to mimic the proneuropeptides found in large dense-core vesicles. We explored this approach with four prominent neuropeptides: gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), oxytocin (OT), substance P (SP), and cholecystokinin (CCK). C-terminus extension greatly reduced the activity of all four peptides at heterologously expressed receptors. In cell type-specific electrophysiological recordings from acute brain slices, subsecond flashes of ultraviolet light produced rapidly activating membrane currents via activation of endogenous G protein-coupled receptors. Subsequent mechanistic studies with caged CCK revealed a role for extracellular proteases in shaping the temporal dynamics of CCK signaling, and a striking switch-like, cell-autonomous anti-opioid effect of transient CCK signaling in hippocampal parvalbumin interneurons. These results suggest that C-terminus extension with a photocleavable linker may be a general strategy for photocaging amidated neuropeptides and demonstrate how photocaged neuropeptides can provide mechanistic insights into neuropeptide signaling that are inaccessible using conventional approaches.

Single Exosome Amperometric Measurements Reveal Encapsulation of Chemical Messengers for Intercellular Communication.

In multicellular organisms, cells typically communicate by sending and receiving chemical signals. Chemical messengers involved in the exocytosis of neuroendocrine cells or neurons are generally assumed to only originate from the fusing of intracellular large dense core vesicles (LDCVs) or synaptic vesicles with the cellular membrane following stimulation. Accumulated evidence suggests that exosomes─one of the main extracellular vesicles (EVs)─carrying cell-dependent DNA, mRNA, proteins, etc., play an essential role in cellular communication. Due to experimental limitations, it has been difficult to monitor the real-time release of individual exosomes; this restricts a comprehensive understanding of the basic molecular mechanisms and the functions of exosomes. In this work, we introduce amperometry with microelectrodes to capture the dynamic release of single exosomes from a single living cell, distinguish them from other EVs, and differentiate the molecules inside exosomes and those secreted from LDCVs. We show that, similar to many LDCVs and synaptic vesicles, exosomes released by neuroendocrine cells also contain catecholamine transmitters. This finding reveals a different mode of chemical communication via exosome-encapsulated chemical messengers and a potential interconnection between the two release pathways, changing the canonical view of exocytosis of neuroendocrine cells and possibly neurons. This defines a new mechanism for chemical communication at the fundamental level and opens new avenues in the research of the molecular biology of exosomes in the neuroendocrine and central nervous systems.

Endolysosomal TPCs regulate social behavior by controlling oxytocin secretion

Oxytocin (OT) is a prominent regulator of many aspects of mammalian social behavior and stored in large dense-cored vesicles (LDCVs) in hypothalamic neurons. It is released in response to activity-dependent Ca2+ influx, but is also dependent on Ca2+ release from intracellular stores, which primes LDCVs for exocytosis. Despite its importance, critical aspects of the Ca2+-dependent mechanisms of its secretion remain to be identified. Here we show that lysosomes surround dendritic LDCVs, and that the direct activation of endolysosomal two-pore channels (TPCs) provides the critical Ca2+ signals to prime OT release by increasing the releasable LDCV pool without directly stimulating exocytosis. We observed a dramatic reduction in plasma OT levels in TPC knockout mice, and impaired secretion of OT from the hypothalamus demonstrating the importance of priming of neuropeptide vesicles for activity-dependent release. Furthermore, we show that activation of type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors sustains somatodendritic OT release by recruiting TPCs. The priming effect could be mimicked by a direct application of nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate, the endogenous messenger regulating TPCs, or a selective TPC2 agonist, TPC2-A1-N, or blocked by the antagonist Ned-19. Mice lacking TPCs exhibit impaired maternal and social behavior, which is restored by direct OT administration. This study demonstrates an unexpected role for lysosomes and TPCs in controlling neuropeptide secretion, and in regulating social behavior.

Effects of cholesterol on membrane binding by Synaptotagmin-7 C2 domains.

Synaptotagmin-7 (Syt-7) is a calcium-dependent membrane binding protein that triggers membrane fusion and content release of large dense core vesicles in neuroendocrine cells, including insulin granules in pancreatic β-cells. Syt-7 is also important in synaptic facilitation for neurotransmitter release. Defining factors involved in Syt-7 membrane binding is important for understanding basic endocrine and neuronal biology as well as disease pathology. Syt-7 contains two C-terminal C2 domains that bind anionic lipid membranes with strong calcium sensitivity. In particular, the C2A domain binds physiological membranes in the presence of low micromolar calcium via a combination of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, while C2B interacts with both phosphatidylserine and phosphatidyl-4,5-bisphosphate via conserved lysine and arginine residues in the calcium-binding loops and polybasic regions. However, it remains unknown how other lipids fine-tune Syt-7 membrane binding in cells. Here, we present molecular dynamics simulation data which suggest that cholesterol may preferentially accumulate at the sites of C2 domain membrane interaction. Additionally, we used stopped flow fluorescence to measure kinetics of binding and release from synthetic liposomes, and our preliminary results indicate an increased dissociation rate when cholesterol is removed. Results will be presented for ongoing experiments with Syt-7 C2A, C2B, and C2AB domains. Overall, the study will improve our understanding of the factors that control the membrane affinity and calcium sensitivity of Syt-7.

Precise CRISPR-Cas9-mediated mutation of a membrane trafficking domain in the Drosophila vesicular monoamine transporter gene

Monoamine neurotransmitters such as noradrenalin are released from both synaptic vesicles (SVs) and large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs), the latter mediating extrasynaptic signaling. The contribution of synaptic versus extrasynaptic signaling to circuit function and behavior remains poorly understood. To address this question, we have previously used transgenes encoding a mutation in the Drosophila Vesicular Monoamine Transporter (dVMAT) that shifts amine release from SVs to LDCVs. To circumvent the use of transgenes with non-endogenous patterns of expression, we have now used CRISPR-Cas9 to generate a trafficking mutant in the endogenous dVMAT gene. To minimize disruption of the dVMAT coding sequence and a nearby RNA splice site, we precisely introduced a point mutation using single-stranded oligonucleotide repair. A predicted decrease in fertility was used as a phenotypic screen to identify founders in lieu of a visible marker. Phenotypic analysis revealed a defect in the ovulation of mature follicles and egg retention in the ovaries. We did not detect defects in the contraction of lateral oviducts following optogenetic stimulation of octopaminergic neurons. Our findings suggest that release of mature eggs from the ovary is disrupted by changing the balance of VMAT trafficking between SVs and LDCVs. Further experiments using this model will help determine the mechanisms that sensitize specific circuits to changes in synaptic versus extrasynaptic signaling.

Morphological features of endomorphin-2-immunoreactive ultrastructures in the dorsal root ganglion and spinal dorsal horn of the rat

Endomorphin-2 (EM2)-immunoreactive (ir) fibers and terminals in the superficial laminae (lamina I and II) of the spinal dorsal horn (SDH) primarily come from neurons in the ipsilateral dorsal root ganglion (DRG), which are important for nociceptive information transmission and modulation. However, the morphological features of EM2-ir neurons and fibers in the DRG and terminals in the SDH under ultrastructural levels have not been completely revealed. The present study observed the distributions of EM2-ir neurons, fibers and terminals in the DRG and SDH and detected their ultrastructural features using immunoelectron microscopy. EM2-ir neurons in the DRG are primarily small or medium in size and account for 17.2% of all neurons in the DRG. EM2-ir large dense-core granule vesicles (LDCVs) are dispersed in the cytoplasm and fibers. Most of the central processes of DRG neurons were thin myelinated and unmyelinated fibers and contained a few EM2-ir LDCVs. An intensive string of EM2-ir fibers with beads and terminals were observed in the superficial laminae of the SDH, other than EM2-ir neurons. EM2-ir products were also detected sparsely in the fibers and terminals. The average diameter of terminals was 94.41 ± 18.13 nm. EM2-ir terminals formed different types of synapses, most of which were asymmetrical (91%). EM2-ir LDCVs colocalized primarily with spherical small clear vesicles in asymmetrical synapses and flat vesicles in symmetrical synapses. The average length of postsynaptic dense zones (PSDs) measured in the asymmetrical synapses was 317.00 ± 31.67 nm. These results indicate that EM2-containing structures are distributed in the cytoplasm of DRG neurons, the central processes and terminals in the SDH and provide morphological evidence for the antinociceptive effects of EM2 in the SDH.

Tuning the Size of Large Dense-Core Vesicles and Quantal Neurotransmitter Release via Secretogranin II Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation.

Large dense‐core vesicles (LDCVs) are larger in volume than synaptic vesicles, and are filled with multiple neuropeptides, hormones, and neurotransmitters that participate in various physiological processes. However, little is known about the mechanism determining the size of LDCVs. Here, it is reported that secretogranin II (SgII), a vesicle matrix protein, contributes to LDCV size regulation through its liquid–liquid phase separation in neuroendocrine cells. First, SgII undergoes pH‐dependent polymerization and the polymerized SgII forms phase droplets with Ca2+ in vitro and in vivo. Further, the Ca2+‐induced SgII droplets recruit reconstituted bio‐lipids, mimicking the LDCVs biogenesis. In addition, SgII knockdown leads to significant decrease of the quantal neurotransmitter release by affecting LDCV size, which is differently rescued by SgII truncations with different degrees of phase separation. In conclusion, it is shown that SgII is a unique intravesicular matrix protein undergoing liquid–liquid phase separation, and present novel insights into how SgII determines LDCV size and the quantal neurotransmitter release.

Dysbindin-1, BDNF, and GABAergic Transmission in Schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder characterized by hallucinations, anhedonia, disordered thinking, and cognitive impairments. Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to schizophrenia. Dysbindin-1 (DTNBP1) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are both genetic factors associated with schizophrenia. Mice lacking Dtnbp1 showed behavioral deficits similar to human patients suffering from schizophrenia. DTNBP1 plays important functions in synapse formation and maintenance, receptor trafficking, and neurotransmitter release. DTNBP1 is co-assembled with 7 other proteins into a large protein complex, known as the biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles complex-1 (BLOC-1). Large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs) are involved in the secretion of hormones and neuropeptides, including BDNF. BDNF plays important roles in neuronal development, survival, and synaptic plasticity. BDNF is also critical in maintaining GABAergic inhibitory transmission in the brain. Two studies independently showed that DTNBP1 mediated activity-dependent BDNF secretion to maintain inhibitory transmission. Imbalance of excitatory and inhibitory neural activities is thought to contribute to schizophrenia. In this mini-review, we will discuss a potential pathogenetic mechanism for schizophrenia involving DTNBP1, BDNF, and inhibitory transmission. We will also discuss how these processes are interrelated and associated with a higher risk of schizophrenia development.

Localization of the Priming Factors CAPS1 and CAPS2 in Mouse Sensory Neurons Is Determined by Their N-Termini.

Both paralogs of the calcium-dependent activator protein for secretion (CAPS) are required for exocytosis of synaptic vesicles (SVs) and large dense core vesicles (LDCVs). Despite approximately 80% sequence identity, CAPS1 and CAPS2 have distinct functions in promoting exocytosis of SVs and LDCVs in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these differences remain enigmatic. In this study, we applied high- and super-resolution imaging techniques to systematically assess the subcellular localization of CAPS paralogs in DRG neurons deficient in both CAPS1 and CAPS2. CAPS1 was found to be more enriched at the synapses. Using – in-depth sequence analysis, we identified a unique CAPS1 N-terminal sequence, which we introduced into CAPS2. This CAPS1/2 chimera reproduced the pre-synaptic localization of CAPS1 and partially rescued synaptic transmission in neurons devoid of CAPS1 and CAPS2. Using immunoprecipitation combined with mass spectrometry, we identified CAPS1-specific interaction partners that could be responsible for its pre-synaptic enrichment. Taken together, these data suggest an important role of the CAPS1-N terminus in the localization of the protein at pre-synapses.

Simultaneous Counting of Molecules in the Halo and Dense‐Core of Nanovesicles by Regulating Dynamics of Vesicle Opening

AbstractWe report the discovery that in the presence of chaotropic anions (SCN−) the opening of nanometer biological vesicles at an electrified interface often becomes a two‐step process (around 30 % doublet peaks). We have then used this to independently count molecules in each subvesicular compartment, the halo and protein dense‐core, and the fraction of catecholamine binding to the dense‐core is 68 %. Moreover, we differentiated two distinct populations of large dense‐core vesicles (LDCVs) and quantified their content, which might correspond to immature (43 %) and mature (30 %) LDCVs, to reveal differences in their biogenesis. We speculate this is caused by an increase in the electrostatic attraction between protonated catecholamine and the negatively charged dense‐core following adsorption of SCN−.

Simultaneous Counting of Molecules in the Halo and Dense-Core of Nanovesicles by Regulating Dynamics of Vesicle Opening.

We report the discovery that in the presence of chaotropic anions (SCN−) the opening of nanometer biological vesicles at an electrified interface often becomes a two‐step process (around 30 % doublet peaks). We have then used this to independently count molecules in each subvesicular compartment, the halo and protein dense‐core, and the fraction of catecholamine binding to the dense‐core is 68 %. Moreover, we differentiated two distinct populations of large dense‐core vesicles (LDCVs) and quantified their content, which might correspond to immature (43 %) and mature (30 %) LDCVs, to reveal differences in their biogenesis. We speculate this is caused by an increase in the electrostatic attraction between protonated catecholamine and the negatively charged dense‐core following adsorption of SCN−.