Bilingual Language Processing Research Articles

Modelling the bilingual lexicon as a multiplex phonological network.

Phonological word form networks of the mental lexicon are of psycholinguistic relevance, offering insights into the efficiency of lexical access. While much research has concentrated on first languages, there is growing evidence suggesting that phonological networks of second languages are equally significant for lexical processes. Bilingual language processing is proposed to involve the integration of first and second languages, with lexical activation spreading between similar word forms in both languages. Multiplex networks provide a framework to combine different phonological networks, allowing for the analysis of the integrated lexical system's behaviour during lexical processing. In the context of the present study, which focusses on German learners of English as a second language, a multiplex network analysis was constructed to model the interactive complexity of the bilingual mental lexicon. The study tested cross-linguistic effects in a word recognition task using English stimuli. Results revealed that during lexical processing in their second language English, German speakers also activate phonological neighbours from German. In addition, the bilinguals are attuned to the interconnectedness (i.e., clustering) of the German and English neighbours with one another in the phonological neighbourhood of the English target words. These findings can contribute to the ongoing debate on the degree of integration in the bilingual mental lexicon and shed light on the role that phonological networks can play in modelling bilingual lexical processing. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining modal and amodal language processing in proficient bilinguals: evidence from the modality-switch paradigm.

Recent discussions have emphasized the significance of embodied processing in language comprehension. Nevertheless, continuous debates persist regarding the relative contribution of modal (embodied) and amodal (abstract) processing of language. The current study investigated the contribution of modal processing in the first (L1) and second (L2) language, hypothesizing higher level of abstract amodal symbol processing in L2 than L1, since the correspondence of L1 and L2 (i.e., the symbol-to-symbol assignment) is in the foreground when learning L2. We employed the modality-switch paradigm (Pecher et al., 2003) in both German and French versions with proficient sequential German and French bilinguals (N = 79). Participants were presented with noun-adjective pairs (e.g., keys - jingling) in both languages and decided whether the adjective could be applied to the noun. This task repeatedly requires switching modality between trials, (e.g., from auditory [keys - jingling] to olfactory [soap - perfumed]), typically causing switch costs on response latency as compared to maintaining the modality. Contrary to the hypothesis, we observed modality switch effects (MSE) in both L1 and L2. This result suggests that embodied language processing occurs not only in the first language but also extends to the second language thus challenging the assumption that L2 processing predominantly involves abstract amodal symbol processing. Notably, however, significant L1 and L2 MSEs were found for French, whereas for German already the L1 effect was rather weak (though significant); the corresponding L2 effect was not significant. Thus, the results hinted at differences between languages regarding the relative role of modal and amodal processing.

Can cultural distance be a factor in bilingual processing? Report from primed translation recognition task of Rongmei–Meitei bilinguals

Abstract Bilingual language processing literature has pointed out that all bilinguals are not equal and many of the differences in processing strategies can be traced to ‘the bilingual experience’. This is true for the famed bilingual advantage debate as well, as the control process associated with bilinguals can be dependent on many factors in the behavioural ecology of the bilingual groups. In this light, the current study investigates bilingual language processing in the Rongmei Naga community in Manipur, North East India. The Rongmeis speak two indigenous/heritage languages as their first and second language: Rongmei and Meitei. These two languages belong to the same language family and the communities speaking them live side by side. The paper investigates the effect of community specific cues on language processing through a primed translation recognition task. The task is carried out on two groups of bilinguals: (educated, urbane) young group and (less educated, rural) old group. The result of the study shows that the mismatch condition has an adverse effect on the response latency across groups and translation directions, thus pointing to the possibility that in spite of cultural and linguistic closeness, prevailing social dimensions may be pointers for possible impact of such cues.

Unusual patterns of codeswitching in an unbalanced bilingual person with aphasia: effects of language and executive functions impairment

ABSTRACT Background Bilingual individuals with aphasia may exhibit unique patterns of language impairment and recovery. While code-switching (CS) is a common feature of bilingual speech, pathological CS following brain damage can provide insights into the neural mechanisms controlling bilingual language processing. Aims This study aimed to examine language impairment and recovery patterns in IZ, an unbalanced Hebrew-English bilingual with non-fluent aphasia, focusing on the unusual CS behavior observed during his subacute phase of recovery. Methods and procedures IZ underwent language and narrative assessments in both languages during the subacute and chronic phases of recovery. Ten cognitive tests were administered to assess various domains of cognitive function. Language performance was evaluated through naming and syntactic processing tasks in L1-Hebrew and L2-English. The frequency and type of CS were analyzed using the matrix language frame model. Outcomes and results During the subacute phase, IZ displayed significant language deficits in both L1-Hebrew and L2-English, with more severe impairment in L1-Hebrew naming and L2-English syntactic processing. He exhibited frequent involuntary CS, primarily using L1-Hebrew as the matrix language while embedding L2-English content words. Cognitive testing revealed reduced performance across multiple domains. In the chronic phase, IZ showed parallel improvements in both languages, particularly in L1-Hebrew naming and L2-English syntactic processing, along with a marked reduction in CS frequency. Conclusions IZ’s case demonstrates a double dissociation between lexical and syntactic processing across L1 and L2. The results suggest that matrix language selection in bilinguals may be governed by distinct neural mechanisms for each language, with specific brain regions responsible for activating lexical representations. Damage to these regions may lead to pathological CS, as observed in this case. This study underscores the importance of understanding bilingual language control mechanisms in aphasia rehabilitation.

Parallel Interactions Between Linguistic and Contextual Factors in Bilinguals

AbstractThe necessity for introducing interactionist and parallelism approaches in different branches of cognitive science emerged as a reaction to classical sequential stage‐based models. Functional psychological models that emphasized and explained how different components interact, dynamically producing cognitive and perceptual states, influenced multiple disciplines. Chiefly among them were experimental psycholinguistics and the many applied areas that dealt with humans’ ability to process different types of information in different contexts. Understanding how bilinguals represent and process verbal and visual input, how their neural and psychological states facilitate such interactions, and how linguistic and nonlinguistic processing overlap, has now emerged as an important area of multidisciplinary research. In this article, we will review available evidence from different language‐speaking groups of bilinguals in India with a focus on situational context. In the discussion, we will address models of language processing in bilinguals within a cognitive psychological approach with a focus on existent models of inhibitory control. The paper's stated goal will be to show that the parallel architecture framework can serve as a theoretical foundation for examining bilingual language processing and its interface with external factors such as social context.

What makes a cognate? Implications for research on bilingualism

What makes a cognate? Implications for research on bilingualism

“¿Cómo qué, cómo qué? cómo qué?” Single-language echolalia in a bilingual female with progressive supranuclear palsy: a case report

ABSTRACT The case study explores bilingualism and neurodegenerative disorders, specifically progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) with speech and language disorder (PSP-SL). It features a 78-year-old Mexican American woman who exhibits echolalia only in response to Spanish. This selective impairment suggests unevenly affected language control mechanisms despite her proficiency in both languages. Cognitive function is evaluated with neuropsychological tests; she's diagnosed with PSP-SL, depression, and anxiety. Echolalia in response to one language implies complex phonological retrieval mechanisms. Such observations prompt further inquiry into bilingual language control and processing mechanisms. The case supports evidence that bilingualism may attenuate neurodegeneration effects, suggesting better inhibitory control over disinhibited speech through enhanced executive functioning benefits.

Executive function's structure in monolingual and bilingual adults using confirmatory factor analysis

Abstract In processing their two languages, bilinguals have to selectively attend to the target language and reduce interference from the non-target language. This experience may have specific cognitive consequences on Executive Functions (EF) through bilingual language processing. Some studies found cognitive consequences in executive functioning skills. However, other studies did not replicate these findings or found a bilingual disadvantage. The aim of this study was to test for the cognitive consequences of bilingualism in EF among a large number of young adults using a latent variable approach, to rule out non-EF task differences as an explanation for inconsistency across studies. Also, we were interested in testing the EF structure using the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) approach. The results did not support a cognitive consequence of bilingualism and also the EF structure was the same for both groups. We discuss other possible variables that might contribute to the mixed results across studies.

Phonological properties of logographic words modulate brain activation in bilinguals: a comparative study of Chinese characters and Japanese Kanji.

The brain networks for the first (L1) and second (L2) languages are dynamically formed in the bilingual brain. This study delves into the neural mechanisms associated with logographic-logographic bilingualism, where both languages employ visually complex and conceptually rich logographic scripts. Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, we examined the brain activity of Chinese-Japanese bilinguals and Japanese-Chinese bilinguals as they engaged in rhyming tasks with Chinese characters and Japanese Kanji. Results showed that Japanese-Chinese bilinguals processed both languages using common brain areas, demonstrating an assimilation pattern, whereas Chinese-Japanese bilinguals recruited additional neural regions in the left lateral prefrontal cortex for processing Japanese Kanji, reflecting their accommodation to the higher phonological complexity of L2. In addition, Japanese speakers relied more on the phonological processing route, while Chinese speakers favored visual form analysis for both languages, indicating differing neural strategy preferences between the 2 bilingual groups. Moreover, multivariate pattern analysis demonstrated that, despite the considerable neural overlap, each bilingual group formed distinguishable neural representations for each language. These findings highlight the brain's capacity for neural adaptability and specificity when processing complex logographic languages, enriching our understanding of the neural underpinnings supporting bilingual language processing.

Sentence processing in monolinguals and trilinguals

ABSTRACT Extensive research exists on language processing in both monolinguals and bilinguals. Yet, whether the trends observed in these groups also apply to trilinguals remains to be determined. A deeper understanding of sentence processing in trilinguals could shed light on the theoretical foundations of multilingualism. This study compared conflict sentence processing in monolinguals and trilinguals during a conflict resolution task. Eighteen participants from both monolingual and trilingual groups undertook semantic acceptability and syntactic judgment tasks. Both behavioral (reaction time and accuracy) and electrophysiological (latency and amplitude) responses were recorded. The behavioral analysis showed no significant differences in accuracy between the groups for either task. However, monolinguals demonstrated shorter reaction times for both tasks. Electrophysiological data suggested variations between trilinguals and monolinguals based on the task type. Trilinguals had shorter latency times for the syntactic judgment task and higher amplitude responses for the semantic acceptability task. These findings indicate distinct sentence processing methods between monolinguals and trilinguals, as evidenced by the electrophysiological results. The growing body of research on trilingualism suggests that acquiring additional languages influences cognitive and linguistic processes.

Early language dissociation in bilingual minds: magnetoencephalography evidence through a machine learning approach.

Does neural activity reveal how balanced bilinguals choose languages? Despite using diverse neuroimaging techniques, prior studies haven't provided a definitive solution to this problem. Nonetheless, studies involving direct brain stimulation in bilinguals have identified distinct brain regions associated with language production in different languages. In this magnetoencephalography study with 45 proficient Spanish-Basque bilinguals, we investigated language selection during covert picture naming and word reading tasks. Participants were prompted to name line drawings or read words if the color of the stimulus changed to green, in 10% of trials. The task was performed either in Spanish or Basque. Despite similar sensor-level evoked activity for both languages in both tasks, decoding analyses revealed language-specific classification ~100ms post-stimulus onset. During picture naming, right occipital-temporal sensors predominantly contributed to language decoding, while left occipital-temporal sensors were crucial for decoding during word reading. Cross-task decoding analysis unveiled robust generalization effects from picture naming to word reading. Our methodology involved a fine-grained examination of neural responses using magnetoencephalography, offering insights into the dynamics of language processing in bilinguals. This study refines our understanding of the neural underpinnings of language selection and bridges the gap between non-invasive and invasive experimental evidence in bilingual language production.

Bidirectional interaction between language control and domain-general executive control in unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals

Recent research has shown that bilinguals outperform monolinguals on tasks requiring non-linguistic executive control skills, thereby generating an interest in the relationship between bilingual language processing and non-linguistic control abilities. Based on this, the present study further examined the bidirectional interaction between language control and non-linguistic control in unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals. These bilinguals completed a Flanker task in three types of language control contexts (i.e., L1, L2, and Mixed language contexts) in the interleaved word-comprehension-to-Flanker sequence and performed a picture-word matching task in three types of non-linguistic executive control contexts (i.e., color, shape and color-shape mixed contexts) in the interleaved color-shape-switching-to-word-comprehension sequence. The results showed that the Flanker effect in mixed language context was smaller than in single (L1 and L2) context, suggesting language control leads to a better non-linguistic control ability. Additionally, the language switching cost was found smaller in the mixed task context (color/shape switching), indicating that non-linguistic control can enhance the language control ability. Therefore, we conclude that there is a bidirectional interaction between language control and non-linguistic control even in unbalanced bilinguals.

The effect of inhibitory control and language proficiency on intra-sentential switching costs in reading comprehension

Based on the inhibition account and activation account, inhibitory control and language proficiency play big roles on language control mechanisms underlying language switching respectively. But it is still debatable whether inhibitory control and language proficiency play roles in sentential context during bilingual language comprehension, and how and when they work if they both do. The present study examined the specific roles of language proficiency and inhibitory control on modulating intra-sentential switching costs in Chinese-English bilinguals using self-paced reading task. Results indicated that language proficiency and switching direction modulated intra-sentential switching costs significantly. Switching costs were larger when switching into L1 than into L2 for the first two code-switched words due to inhibitory effect, but more costly switching into L2 than into L1 since the third code-switched words owing to the effect of relative language proficiency. During bilingual language processing, inhibition and activation of languages shaped a dynamic interplay of complementary language control processes. Specifically, inhibitory control and language proficiency work as a dynamic continuum in language switching at sentence level. Switching into L1 requires the release of inhibition to L1, but switching into L2 asks the activation and access of L2. The interaction effects of language proficiency and inhibitory control influenced the exertion and components of inhibition. This study reconciled the independent roles of language proficiency and inhibitory control on language switching and constructed a new continuum based on language proficiency.

Which language is more affected in bilinguals with Alzheimer's disease? Diagnostic sensitivity of the Multilingual Naming Test.

This study examined the joint consequences of bilingualism and Alzheimer's disease (AD) for picture naming ability to determine which language is more affected by AD and what scoring methods best distinguish patients from controls. Sixty-five Spanish-English bilinguals including 26 with dementia and 39 controls with equivalent age, education, and bilingual proficiency level, were tested on the Multilingual Naming Test (Gollan et al., 2012). Bilinguals with AD named fewer pictures than controls, and overall AD seemed to affect both languages about equally, but exploratory analyses suggested that this varied with item difficulty. In the dominant language difficult items exhibited a larger effect of AD than easy items (which were at ceiling for both patients and controls), whereas in the nondominant language items of all difficulty levels were about equally affected by AD. An "either-language" scoring procedure (that counted items as correct if produced only in one of the two languages) increased naming scores especially in balanced bilinguals, and to an equal extent in patients and controls. Receiver Operating Characteristic analyses revealed that dominant language and either-language naming scores classified bilinguals as patients versus controls equally well and adding nondominant language scores did not improve diagnostic sensitivity. Testing primarily or exclusively in the dominant language is best for detecting AD naming impairments in bilinguals. However, AD affects the ability to access names in both languages, possibly for different reasons, and simple descriptions of language decline as "parallel" or "asymmetrical" (i.e., AD affecting one language more than the other) may be misleading in terms of the theoretical implications for bilingual language processing. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Nouns are not always processed faster than verbs in bilingual speakers: effects of language distance

AbstractThe purpose of the current report is to study the effects of language distance on noun and verb processing in bilingual speakers. We recruited two groups of bilingual speakers: one group spoke two typologically distant languages (Cantonese and English) and the other group spoke two typologically similar languages (Mandarin and Cantonese). Participants named object and action pictures in their first language. We controlled psycholinguistic properties of words such as frequency, AoA, imageability, name agreement, visual complexity, familiarity, and participants’ bilingual language experiences. Our findings revealed a significant role for language distance. We observed a difference between noun and verb processing in the similar language pair (Mandarin–Cantonese) due to interference induced by language similarity. However, in the distant language pair (Cantonese–English), the difference disappeared because of the lack of cross-language interference. Our findings support that current and future models of bilingual language processing should take into account the effects of language distance.

Hebrew-L2 speakers process auditory templatic words through their L1 processing mechanism with awareness of L2.

Bilingualism involves cross-linguistic influence (CLI) prompted by communicative function, which impacts the activation of the bilingual's L1/L2 language processing mechanisms. The current study examines the extent of CLI when semantic information is reduced. Semitic languages are known for their templatic words composed of intertwined sub-lexical root and template morphemes, entailing non-linear morphological processing. As the roots constitute the semantic core, comprehension was found to impact morphological processing among Hebrew-L2 readers. Herein, we assessed the processing mechanism activated among adult Hebrew-L2 bilinguals in an auditory rhyme judgment task that requires linear processing. The task was provided with Hebrew templatic word pairs comprising accentuated (meta)linguistic information irrespective of semantics: phonological co-occurrence restrictions (root), grammatical information of vocalic melodies (template), and contrastive stress. We hypothesized that CLI in Hebrew-L2 speakers would be reflected in low accuracy rates in rhyming pairs when linguistic information is accentuated, indicating distraction from the linear processing due to activation levels of the L2 processing mechanism caused by competing linguistic cues drawn on transferred linguistic information. We compared the performance of 58 adult Hebrew native speakers with 54 Hebrew-L2 speakers with Semitic and non-Semitic-L1. The findings demonstrate that Hebrew-L2 speakers performed the task using their L1 processing mechanism with varying activation levels of L2, showing awareness of the morphological processing due to the vocalic melody for non-Semitic-L1 and awareness of contrastive stress for Semitic-L1. The results confirm CLI also when semantics is reduced, elucidating how much CLI modulates the bilingual's language processing mechanism.

Brain potentials reveal how emotion filters native language access when bilinguals read words in their second language.

It is now well established that reading words in a second language (L2) automatically activates native language (L1) translations in bilinguals. Although there is evidence that access to such representations is inhibited when words have a negative emotional valence, the mechanism underlying such inhibition is elusive, and it is unknown whether inhibition arises online as L2 is being processed or whether negative valence affects subsequent L1 processing. Here, we recorded event-related brain potentials in Chinese-English bilinguals engaged in an implicit translation-priming paradigm involving L2 (English) word pairs. Participants performed a semantic relatedness task, unaware that word pairs could conceal a sound repetition if translated into Chinese. When emotional valence was manipulated in prime position (first word), we observed form repetition priming through L1 translations for positive but not for negative words. However, when emotional valence was manipulated in target position (second word), priming occurred for both positive and negative word valences. This result begins to elucidate the mechanism by which emotion regulates language processing in bilinguals: Negative words in L2 induce a refractory period during which cross-language lexical access is blocked. These findings show that despite being neuroanatomically distinct in the human brain, emotional (limbic) regulation systems can penetrate language processing.

Dual-task decrements in mono-, bi- and multilingual participants: Evidence for multilingual advantage

ABSTRACT Evidence suggests that language processing in bilinguals is less left-lateralized than in monolinguals. We explored dual-task decrement (DTD) for mono-, bi- and multilinguals in a verbal-motor dual-task paradigm. We expected monolinguals to show greater DTD than bilingual participants, who would show greater DTD than multilingual participants. Fifty right-handed participants (18 monolingual, 16 bilingual, 16 multilingual) completed verbal fluency and manual motor tasks in isolation and concurrently. Tasks were completed twice in isolation (left-handed, right-handed) and twice as dual-tasks (left-handed, right-handed); participants’ motor-executing hands served proxy for hemispheric activation. Results supported the hypotheses. Completing dual-tasks incurred greater cost for manual motor tasks than for verbal fluency tasks. Negative cost of performing dual-tasks diminished as number of languages spoken increased; in fact, multilingual individuals demonstrated a dual-task advantage in both tasks when using the right hand, strongest in the verbal task. Dual-tasking had the greatest negative impact on verbal fluency of monolingual participants when the motor task was completed with the right hand; for bi- and multi-lingual participants, the greatest negative impact on verbal fluency was seen when the motor task was completed with the left hand. Results provide support for the bi-lateralization of language function in bi- and multilingual individuals.

Integration of visual context in early and late bilingual language processing: evidence from eye-tracking.

Previous research on the processing of language embedded in a rich visual context has revealed the strong effect that a recently viewed action event has on language comprehension. It has been shown that listeners are more likely to view the target object of a recently performed event than look at the target object of a plausible future event during sentence utterance, regardless of the tense cue. In the current visual-world eye-tracking experiments, we tested the strength of the recently observed visual context with a group of English monolingual and two groups of English-French early and late bilingual speakers. By comparing these different groups, we examined whether bilingual speakers, as a consequence of greater cognitive flexibility when integrating visual context and language information, show early anticipatory eye-movements toward the target object. We further asked whether early and late bilinguals show differences in their processing. The findings of the three eye-tracking experiments revealed an overall preference for the recently seen event. However, as a result of the early provision of tense cue, this preference was quickly diminished in all three groups. Moreover, the bilingual groups showed an earlier decrease in reliance on the recently seen event compared to monolingual speakers and the early bilinguals showed anticipatory eye-movements toward the plausible future event target. Furthermore, a post-experimental memory test revealed that the bilingual groups recalled the future events marginally better than the recent events, whereas the reverse was found in the monolingual groups.

Uyghur–Chinese early successive adult bilinguals’ construal of caused motion events

AbstractTalmy’s motion event typology has served as a fruitful framework for exploring bilingual cognition and language use. The present study extends this line of research to the bilingualism situation of an underrepresented Turkic language, i.e., Modern Uyghur, and Mandarin Chinese, and it does so by focusing on a relatively understudied type of motion, i.e., caused motion. The two languages are genetically and typologically distinct, and yet they share verb-framing as an important lexicalization pattern in encoding motion. This study, therefore, investigated whether and to what extent this structural overlap contributes to crosslinguistic influence in Uyghur–Chinese adult bilinguals’ construal of caused motion. Thirty Uyghur–Chinese adult bilinguals’ verbalizations were analyzed with respect to the number of semantic components expressed and the way they were syntactically packaged. Results were compared with relevant monolingual data, which showed that Uyghur–Chinese adult bilinguals displayed a strong L1 to L2 influence in syntactic packaging by overusing the verb-framed strategy in Mandarin Chinese. However, further comparisons with previous research on Uyghur–Chinese child and adult bilinguals’ motion construal revealed that, while structural overlap is a key factor motivating crosslinguistic influence, a coherent explanation of this phenomenon must consider more general principles of bilingual language processing and use.