Mixed Language Research Articles

Keyword selection on Google Ads

Google Advertising is a publicity agency that provides marketers with advertisements. By choosing keywords relevant to their ad material, advertisers fit the user's search terms and push advertising. Keywords will decide the type of users being pushed by an advertiser, the efficacy of the ad promotion, and therefore the ad product's sales. The main objective is to automatically choosing keywords that are satisfactory to advertisers from an outsized number of keywords given by Google Advertising. But there’s not an excessive amount of time for the framework to make a decision whether keywords are chosen and to pick the proper keywords within the shortest time. Therefore, a model structure which can obtain some helpful keywords for advertisers is built also to accomplish this multipurpose task, an enhanced method of multi-objective particle swarm optimization is introduced. Many technical challenges need to be solved to accomplish this multi-objective mission, such as the issue of mixed language, the problem of data imbalance, the issue of obtaining features from the collection, and so on. The mixture of evolutionary computation, deep learning, machine learning and text processing approaches is used here to solve the issue of keyword selection.

Code mixing in Arabic Conversation among Indonesian Students of Al-Azhar University

The purpose of this research is to determine the form of code mixing used in WhatsApp group conversations among Indonesian students at Al-Azhar University Egypt and the factors causing code mixing in their conversations. This research is literary research using qualitative approach. The data obtained are analyzed using sociolinguistic theories, especially code-mixing. The objects of this research consist of words and sentences found in the conversations. The data, words and sentences, are taken from WhatsApp group named Sufara-Indonesia. In order to get data, researcher utilized documentation method, in which data are collected from WhatsApp conversation, followed by note-taking techniques. The results of the research are mixed language found in 40 sentences. Among the data, 32 are in the form of word, and 5 are in the form of phrases, 3 are clauses. This research also found that among factors influencing code-mixing are their habit of using their mother tongue, Indonesian language, and their intimacy for they live in the same place far from their home land.

Bilingual Language Experience and Its Effect on Conflict Adaptation in Reactive Inhibitory Control Tasks

We used machine-learning techniques to assess interactions between language and cognitive systems related to inhibitory control and conflict adaptation in reactive control tasks. We built theoretically driven candidate models of Simon and Number Stroop task data (N = 777 adult bilinguals ages 18–43 years living in Montréal, Canada) that differed in whether bilingual experience interacted with inhibitory control, including two forms of conflict adaptation: shorter term sequential congruency effects and longer term trial order effects. Models with continuous aspects of bilingual experience provided signal in predicting new, unmodeled data. Specifically, mixed language usage predicted trial order adaptation to conflict. This effect was restricted to Number Stroop, which overtly involves linguistic or symbolic information and relatively higher language- and response-related uncertainty. These results suggest that bilingual experience adaptively tunes aspects of the control system and offers a novel integrative modeling approach that can be used to pursue other complex individual difference questions within the psychological sciences.

Language Mixing in Indian Linguistic Landscape

Language Mixing in Indian Linguistic Landscape

Consequences of mixing and switching languages for retrieval and articulation

AbstractA large literature has shown that language context –mixing and switching between languages – impacts lexical access processes during bilingual speech production. Recent work has suggested parallel contextual effects of language context on the phonetic realization of speech sounds, consistent with interactions between lexical access and phonetic processes. In this pre-registered study, we directly examine the link between lexical access and phonetic processes in Spanish–English bilinguals using picture naming. Using automated acoustic analysis, we simultaneously gather measures of reaction time (indexing lexical access) and acoustic properties of the initial consonant and vowel (indexing phonetic processes) for the same speakers on the same trials. Across measures, we find consistent, robust effects of mixing and language dominance. In contrast, while switching effects are robust in reaction time measures, they are not detected in phonetic measures. These inconsistent effects suggest there are constraints on the degree of interaction between lexical access and phonetic processes.

Marathi SentiWordNet: A lexical resource for sentiment analysis of Marathi

SummarySentiment analysis (SA) is information retrieval and computational linguistics that expresses sentiment about a specific document. Recently, research on SA has received greater interests due to the vast expansion of internet data. The comments and reviews posted online creates difficulties to the researchers, because the comments posted are written in unstructured formats with informal expressions, languages and possibly mixed languages. Most of the works on SA have been focusing only on English language but with respect to Indian languages, few works are done, especially on Hindi, Telugu, Bengali, and so forth. SentiWordNet is a useful lexical resource for determining the sentiment of a document or piece of text. There is currently no lexical resource for the Marathi language used for sentiment analysis. Therefore, this proposed research presents SA in one of the languages of Indian origin, that is, Marathi. In this paper, a new method is proposed for the development of a Marathi SentiWordNet (M‐SWN), synset‐based expansion approach using Marathi WordNet, which consists of Positive, Negative, and Neutral Polarity score, mapped from Hindi‐SentiWordNet (H‐SWN). Finally, sentiment analysis of movie reviews is carried out using M‐SWN using Bi‐LSTM based SVM classifier model.

Translanguaged discourses of Bemba and English: The mobility and mixing of languages in a multilingual space

Couched within the overarching framework of translanguaging, this paper attempts to show the real-life language practices of social actors away from the dominant narratives of translanguaging in bilingual education. Predicated on the mixing and mobility of languages across time and space, the paper uses casual conversations from two multilingual spaces, a university campus, and a marketplace. Firstly, the paper shows the mixing of the English language and Bemba, a widely spoken indigenous language in Zambia while arguing that the Bemba-English translanguaged discourses provide evidence for the mobility and the disembodiment of language and locality. Secondly, the paper argues that the spread and circulation of Bemba in multiple localities should be seen as the mobility of bits and pieces -and/or resources akin to urbanity and hybridity. The paper concludes by bringing into the spotlight the dynamics of the Bemba-English translanguaged discourses in which morphemes as semiotic resources create new lexical items which destabilize expected linguistic norms and boundaries.

Passing the Test of Split: Israbic-A New Mixed Language

Abstract Israbic is a language variety that is spoken by a majority of the Druze community in Israel and is characterised by a mixture of Israeli Hebrew and Palestinian Arabic. Longitudinal data of Palestinian Arabic/Israeli Hebrew code-switching from the Israeli Druze community collected in 2000, 2017 and 2018 indicate that Israbic went through a gradual process of language mixing. The process started with code-switching, was followed by a composite matrix language formation and ultimately resulted in a mixed language. Some linguists (see Backus, 2003; Bakker, 2003) claim that mixed languages cannot arise out of code-switching. Conversely, others (see Auer, 1999; Myers-Scotton, 2003) have proposed theoretical models to mixed languages as outcomes of code-switching, and some (see McConvell, 2008; McConvel and Meakins, 2005; Meakins, 2012; O’Shannessy, 2012) have provided empirical evidence under which mixed languages arise out of code-switching. This research sought to gather further empirical evidence showing that Israbic is another mixed language that arose out of code-switching. This study also wished to emphasise the uniqueness of Israbic, which is a mixture of closely related languages. Such mixtures are scarce in the literature (Auer, 2014). An examination of Israbic in relation to Auer’s and Myers-Scotton’s models and general definitions in the literature and comparisons of Israbic with other widely accepted mixed languages reveals that Israbic is an excellent example of a mixed language. However, such models and definitions are based on existing languages that have been subject to discussion in the literature. Of these languages, the majority arose from contact between languages from different language families, whereas this study is concerned with investigating a mixed language from the same language family. Thus, this raises the question as to whether such concepts have the same validity for closely related languages.

Intimate Estrangements: Talking about Love and the Self in Robert Glück’s Margery Kempe

This article addresses the adaptation of the medieval devotional work, The Book of Margery Kempe (1438), in Robert Glück’s New Narrative novel Margery Kempe (1994). Speaking as the character “Bob”, Glück retells Margery’s mystical experiences and desires in a blend of modern prose, Middle English, and Medieval Latin. I argue that this mixed form fosters an intimate but disruptive reading experience that estranges Kempe’s medieval world from modern readers; in turn, Glück poses the limits of talking about love and the self in writing. I begin by tracing the formal choices made in Barry Windeatt’s modern English translation of Kempe’s Book that Glück used, before describing the mixing of historical and modern languages in his retelling of Kempe’s life. I conclude that the recent republication of Glück’s novel (2020) proves its continued relevance, as it raises the queer possibilities of translation and adaptation for us today.

Kreolisasi Bahasa Indonesia dengan Bahasa Arab pada Komunikasi Santri Pondok Modern Rafah Bogor

Abstract
 An educational institution that implements a language system requires a support system from all lines to realize active communication. However, it is the background of the students that affects the type of language that will be studied so that a new language is formed as a result of marriage between the original language and the language studied. The purpose of this study was to determine the art of communication for the students of Pondok Rafah and to find out the structure of the mixed language of Indonesian and Arabic dialects. This research includes library research using qualitative research methods which refers to the book Qualitative and Inquiry Research Design by John W. Cresswell with purposive sampling data collection technique. From the results of this study, the students of Pondok Rafah came from various ethnic and cultural backgrounds and one national language, namely Indonesia. So, a new language was formed as a result of the marriage of the original language with the language he was learning due to the lack of native speakers in Pondok. For example: لَيْسَ ذلِكَ غَرْضِي (that's not what it means) The correct one in Arabic Fushah is لَيْسَ هذَا هُوَ الْمَقْصُوْدُ However, Rafah's students still know the original Arabic language even if fellow alumni are mixed dialects because they have become identities.

ALIH KODE DAN CAMPUR KODE DALAM PROSES PEMBELAJARAN PADA MAHASISWA PASCASARJANA PENDIDIKAN BAHASA ARAB UIN MAULANA MALIK IBRAHIM MALANG

This study was conducted to describe code switching and code mixing in the learning process of postgraduate students of Arabic Language Education (PBA) semester II and the factors that cause code switching and code mixing in the learning process of postgraduate students of Arabic language education in the second semester. Researchers use learning in postgraduate students as the object of research because in learning, language mixing often occurs when delivering material. The method used in this research is a qualitative descriptive method with a conversational engagement listening technique, a conversational engagement free technique and a field note technique or sampling technique. The result of this research is the finding of an external form of code switching, namely code switching from Indonesian to Arabic and code switching from Arabic to Indonesian. As for code mixing found in the study, namely the insertion of words, phrases and clauses. While the factors causing the occurrence of code switching and code mixing were found because of the urgent need of speakers to provide understanding to the interlocutor.

47 Prevalence of and Factors Associated with Language Impairment in Canadian Children with ASD

Abstract Background Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a life-long neurodevelopmental disorder affecting 1 in 66 Canadians aged 5-17, and language impairment is a common comorbidity in this population. We aimed to determine the relative prevalence of diagnosed language impairment in children with ASD. We also examined factors associated with language impairment in children with ASD. Objectives 1 – To determine the relative prevalence of language impairment in children diagnosed with ASD. 2 – To identify factors associated with language impairment in children with ASD. Design/Methods Our study sample included 6,862 children aged 0-19 years, assessed for ASD (61% diagnosed with ASD) between 2010-2017 in British Columbia, Canada. ASD was diagnosed by a provincially qualified specialist and the assessment included the use of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS-2) and Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R). We also looked for associations between language impairment and gender, age, intellectual disability (ID), family history of language disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), using chi-square analyses. Results The overall prevalence of language impairment in children diagnosed with ASD (n = 1820, 44%) was similar to those not diagnosed (n = 1199, 44%). There was more mixed receptive/expressive (80% vs 65%) and less expressive only (22% vs 29%) language impairment in children diagnosed with ASD than without. Looking only at the children diagnosed with ASD, there was no significant difference when evaluating gender (boys 44%, girls 41%; p = 0.094), but younger age was positively associated with language impairment (age <6y 53%, ≥6y 24%; p < 0.01). Increasing severity of ID was negatively associated with language impairment (mild: 44%, p = 0.911; moderate: 33%, p = 0.001; severe: 21%, p < 0.001). Family history of speech language disorder was positively associated with language impairment (no family history 12%, family history 20%; p < 0.01). Presence of comorbid ADHD was negatively associated with language impairment (no ADHD 47%, ADHD 28%; p < 0.01). Conclusion In children who have been referred for an ASD assessment, the prevalence of language impairment is similar in those with and without ASD. Children with ASD are more likely to be diagnosed with mixed language impairment than expressive only language impairment, although this difference may in part be due to challenges in fully assessing a child with ASD’s receptive language.

Comparing Single-Word Insertions and Multi-Word Alternations in Bilingual Speech: Insights from Pupillometry

Prominent sociolinguistic theories of language mixing have posited that single-word insertions of one language into the other are the result of a distinct process than multi-word alternations between two languages given that the former overwhelmingly surface morphosyntactically integrated into the surrounding language. To date, this distinction has not been tested in comprehension. The present study makes use of pupillometry to examine the online processing of single-word insertions and multi-word alternations by highly proficient Spanish-English bilinguals in Puerto Rico. Participants heard sentences containing target noun/adjective pairs (1) in unilingual Spanish, (2) where the Spanish noun was replaced with its English translation equivalent, followed by a Spanish post-nominal adjective, and (3) where both the noun and adjective appeared in English with the adjective occurring in the English pre-nominal position. Both types of language mixing elicit larger pupillary responses when compared to unilingual Spanish speech, though the magnitude of this difference depends on the grammatical gender of the target noun. Importantly, single-word insertions and multi-word alternations did not differ from one another. Taken together, these findings suggest that morphosyntactic integration is not the defining feature of single-word insertions, at least in comprehension, and that the comprehension system is tuned to the distributional properties of bilingual speech.

Trilingual and biliterate language education policy in Hong Kong: past, present and future

Hong Kong’s ‘trilingual and biliterate’ language policy (TaB, 三語兩文) is almost as old as the special administrative region (SAR) itself. Through free education and language support measures in school, students are expected to be conversant in English and Putonghua in addition to Cantonese, and be able to read and understand written Chinese and English. After being implemented for over two decades, however, there are signs that most students’ language standards in Chinese and English fall short of the TaB target, as measured by the public examination results of successive generations of secondary school leavers. Designed with essentially Cantonese-dominant Hongkongers in mind, the TaB policy consists of many measures, with the ‘medium of instruction streaming policy’ introduced since September 1998 being the most controversial. Driven by the twin principles of monolingual English-medium instruction (EMI) and ‘no language mixing allowed’, secondary schools are divided into two streams. Stringent requirements must be met before a school could claim to be an EMI school. According to this ‘late immersion’ model for students aged 11–12 at secondary level, every year about 30 percent of the primary school leavers are allocated to an EMI school. Following Li (Multilingual Hong Kong: languages, literacies and identities. Springer, Cham, 2017), this paper will first discuss why the TaB target is such a tall order for Cantonese-dominant students by reviewing the relevant literature along five inter-related dimensions: contrastive linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, cognitive neuroscience, and instructional strategies and bilingual pedagogies. I will then examine the SAR government’s language support measures to assess their effectiveness and explore possible alternatives. The paper will end with a number of recommendations, which together constitute an LPP (language policy and planning) roadmap for improving the chance with which the TaB policy is likely to produce more positive outcomes. (i) To re-prioritize the investment and extent of language support by strengthening the quality of language input at the key stages of learning from age 3–9, which in curriculum terms correspond with K1–P3; (ii) To use Cantonese as the medium of instruction for teaching all subjects except English and Putonghua as separate subjects at preschool (K1–K3, age 3–6); (iii) To explore the possibility of implementing total immersion in Putonghua for three years at lower primary level (P1–P3, age 6–9); (iv) To abandon the ‘maximum exposure, no mixing’ dogma in secondary education and to encourage basic and action research in bilingual pedagogies and instructional strategies informed by Content-and-language integrated learning (CLIL); (v) To attract academically bright and linguistically gifted students to receive professional training and be prepared and committed for a career in language teaching; and (vi) To encourage civil servants of various government offices, schoolteachers, and university staff to initiate a ‘speak English/Putonghua where we can’ campaign. For these policy measures to be successfully implemented and bear fruit, apart from careful planning, there ought to be strong leadership from within the government and the education sector, plus mechanisms for coordinating concerted actions on the part of various groups of stakeholders, notably teachers, school principals, educationalists, and experts of language teaching and learning in academia.

The Phoenix and the Interlingual Dimensions of Early English Literary Culture

The Phoenix and the Interlingual Dimensions of Early English Literary Culture

Early Prediction of Reading Risk in Fourth Grade: A Combined Latent Class Analysis and Classification Tree Approach

ABSTRACT Purpose Fourth grade typically involves shifting the instruction from learning to read to reading to learn, which can cause students to struggle. However, early reading intervention guided by assessment has demonstrated effectiveness in preventing later reading difficulties (RD). This study presents a classification and regression tree (CART) model predicting fourth-grade reading groups using first-grade measures. Method Students were assessed in first and fourth grade (N = 452). Fourth-grade groups were determined using latent class analysis based on word reading and reading comprehension measures with a cut-point at the 15th percentile. A CART model was trained to determine the best decision rules to classify students at risk of developing later RD and compared to a logistic regression model. Results Important first-grade predictors included a mix of oral language and foundational word-reading skills with final classification accuracy estimates of .90 AUC, .91 sensitivity, and .75 specificity. Conclusion While the CART and logistic regression models’ classification accuracy was similar, CART has the advantage of offering a more intuitive way for practitioners to determine risk. Multivariate screening can be time-consuming, but CART models offer the potential to reduce false positives and guide targeted interventions, leading to better use of school resources.

Transitivity Marking in Light Warlpiri, an Australian Mixed Language

Light Warlpiri is a newly emerged Australian mixed language that systematically combines nominal structure from Warlpiri (Australian, Pama-Nyungan) with verbal structure from Kriol (an English-lexified Creole) and English, with additional innovations in the verbal auxiliary system. Lexical items are drawn from both Warlpiri and the two English-lexified sources, Kriol and English. The Light Warlpiri verb system is interesting because of questions raised about how it combines elements of its sources. Most verb stems are derived from Kriol or English, but Warlpiri stems also occur, with reanalysis, and stems of either source host Kriol-derived transitive marking (e.g., hit-im ‘hit-TR’). Transitive marking is productive but also variable. In this paper, we examine transitivity and its marking on Light Warlpiri verbs, drawing on narrative data from an extensive corpus of adult speech. The study finds that transitive marking on verbs in Light Warlpiri is conditioned by six of Hopper and Thompson’s semantic components of transitivity, as well as a morphosyntactic constraint.

Language Mixing in an Indonesian-Balinese Simultaneous Bilingual Child

When children get regular and continual exposure to two or more languages, they can develop the competence to use those languages. However, the languages used by the children may include mixing, where features of different languages converge in single language use. The present research investigates the speech of a three-year-old child exposed to Indonesian and Balinese since birth. The study focused on analyzing the language mixing produced by the child. The child was observed for three months. The child was exposed to Indonesian by the parents and Balinese by grandparents and other extended family members. They all lived in the same compound. In collecting the data, diary notes were used, supplemented with video recordings. The result shows that language mixing occurred when the child substituted content words, phrases, and function words in both languages. The language mixing happens due to the salient of the words, the frequent use of the words or phrases in the child's environment, the availability of mixing in the input, and an effort to emphasize meaning. Pragmatically, the result shows that the child can use the two languages appropriately with different interlocutors.

Toddler-directed and adult-directed gesture frequency in monolingual and bilingual caregivers

Aims and objectives: This study was designed to assess whether bilingual caregivers, compared with monolingual caregivers, modify their nonverbal gestures to match the increased communicative and/or cognitive-linguistic demands of bilingual language contexts – as would be predicted based on the ‘Facilitative Strategy Hypothesis’. Methodology: We examined the rate of gestures (i.e., representational and beat gestures) in monolingual and bilingual caregivers when retelling a cartoon story to their child or to an adult, in a monolingual and a bilingual context (‘synonym’ context for monolingual caregivers). Data and analysis: We calculated the frequency of all gestures, representational gestures, and beat gestures for each addressee (adult-directed vs. toddler-directed) and language context (monolingual vs. bilingual/synonym), separately for the monolingual and the bilingual caregivers. Using linear mixed models, we contrasted monolingual versus bilingual caregivers’ gesture frequency. Findings/conclusions: Bilingual caregivers gesture more than monolingual caregivers, irrespective of addressee and language context. Furthermore, we found evidence in support of the Facilitative Strategy Hypothesis across both monolingual and bilingual caregivers, as both groups increased the rate of their representational gestures in the child-directed retelling. Furthermore, both bilingual and monolingual caregivers used more gestures in the context of increased communicative demands (language mixing or using synonyms for monolingual caregivers). Originality: To our knowledge, this is the first study of gesture use in child-directed communication in monolingual and bilingual caregivers. Significance/implications: Independent of their monolingual or bilingual status, caregivers adjust their multimodal communication strategies (specifically gestures) when interacting with their children. Furthermore, under increased communicative demands, both groups of caregivers further increase their gesture rate.

Family language patterns in bilingual families and relationships with children’s language outcomes

AbstractPast research shows that family language patterns (i.e., which languages are spoken in the family and by whom) are associated with bilingual children’s language use. However, it is unclear how input properties such as input quantity, parental proficiency, and language mixing may differ across family language patterns. It is also unclear whether the effects of family language patterns on children’s language proficiency remain when differences in input properties are controlled. We investigated (i) which family language patterns occurred in bilingual families in the Netherlands (n = 136), (ii) whether input properties differed across patterns, and (iii) how patterns related to children’s proficiency, once input properties were controlled. Home language situations were assessed through a questionnaire, children’s proficiency in Dutch and the minority language through vocabulary tests and parent ratings. Three language patterns were found: one-parent-one-language, both parents mixed languages or used the minority language. The results showed differences in input properties across all patterns, as well as effects of these patterns on children’s proficiency in Dutch and the minority language that disappeared once input properties were controlled. These findings do not provide robust evidence that family language patterns predict children’s proficiency, but rather, that input quantity is crucial.