Language Competence Research Articles

Monitoring, Supervising, and Improving Curriculum Systems in Arabic Language Education Study Programs at STAIN Mandailing Natal

This study aims to evaluate the monitoring, supervision, and curriculum improvement system in the Arabic Language Education Study Program at Sekolah Tinggi Agama Islam Negeri Mandailing Natal (STAIN Madina), assessing its effectiveness in enhancing Arabic language competence and supporting Islamic learning. Utilizing a qualitative research design, the study employs a case study methodology, combining interviews, observations, and documentation analysis. The findings reveal that the monev system, involving comprehensive planning, implementation, and reporting, effectively covers graduate competency standards, content standards, process standards, and learning assessment standards. The structured approach, involving multiple stakeholders, ensures thorough evaluation and continuous improvement. However, limitations such as the need for more in-depth internal supervision of content standards and challenges related to human resources and stakeholder engagement were noted. These findings are significant for higher education institutions aiming to enhance their curriculum systems, offering a model for structured monitoring and supervision. Further research is recommended to explore integrated internal supervision mechanisms and long-term effects on student outcomes.

A TEACHER “ON A SMARTPHONE” OR MOBILE APPLICATIONS AS AN INNOVATIVE TOOL FOR LEARNING UKRAINIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

The application of collective teaching methods leads to the development of language and conversational competence and directs to the creating a stable motivation to learn the Ukrainian language in a foreign language audience. The article considers the possibilities of using a collective method as a means of activating language and speech activity in the process of teaching Ukrainian to high-competence Polish students. It was analyzed the current state of the problem, and characterized modern collective game-like teaching technologies, which play a significant role in the process of effective learning of Ukrainian as a foreign language by means of professional language, and help to achieve the level of free foreign language communication in professional process. The purpose of the tasks and their impact on the development of the student’s personality and increase his level of knowledge were highlighted in the manuscript. The most effective for foreign (Polish) student audience training exercises for collective performance were analyzed, and features and the benefit of their application in the educational process were indicated. The expediency of using of collective game-like tasks for deepening and mastering the terminology of museology in classes with foreigners was analyzed. The examples of non-standard games aimed the developing students’ skills in analyzing and solving everyday situations were offered. The application of collective game-like teaching methods increases the efficiency of students’ learning, enriches the change of the educational process, enhances the motivation to learn the Ukrainian language, makes impossible the domination of participants in the educational process, creates conditions for closer cooperation between teachers and foreign language authorization. Key words: terminology of museology, Ukrainian language as a foreign language, collective method of teaching, high competence, exercise, game.

USING CLIL IN PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF FUTURE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TEACHERS IN LEADING EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

The challenges of wartime have prompted Ukrainian researchers to seek the most effective methods for enhancing professional education, particularly professional training of future vocational education teachers. As a result, examining the leading European experience with content and language integrated learning (CLIL) in professional training programmes for future vocational education teachers is scientifically justified and necessary. It is found that the problem of using CLIL in professional training of future specialists is notably significant. In the context of globalization and European integration processes, future professionals must demonstrate high levels of foreign language competence and competitiveness in the international labour market. Leading European countries, including Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Spain, actively implement CLIL’s conceptual aspects in their training programmes. However, the specific features of these implementations, such as sectorality, strategies and approaches, assessment characteristics and material support, may vary. The main advantages and challenges of using CLIL in professional training of future vocational education teachers are identified. Based on leading European experiences, the most effective methods to enhance professional training through CLIL are substantiated. These methods include the development of integrated educational programmes, effective use of resources, differentiated instruction, systematic assessment and feedback, as well as reflective practice. Accordingly, relevant recommendations are proposed to improve professional training of future vocational education teachers in Ukraine by integrating key aspects of CLIL into curricula. It is defined that, by adopting these practices, future vocational education teachers can effectively employ CLIL to enhance both language and vocational learning, better preparing their students for success in global and multicultural work environments. Further research is aimed at analyzing the content of foreign language training for future vocational education teachers in developed countries.

PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPING SOCIO-CULTURAL COMPETENCE AMONG FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS DURING THE DIGITALIZATION OF EDUCATION

The article is devoted to the role of socio-cultural competence (SCC) in learning English as a foreign language, which is considered one of the key competencies for language perception and successful integration into the cultural space of English-speaking countries. The article presents the results of a study examining the professional training of future foreign language teachers for teaching in a digitalized educational environment. It also analyzes the role of socio-cultural competence in language learning.The research includes a review of extensive methodological and pedagogical literature, an analysis of the term “digitalization”, and an investigation into the main differences between “communicative” and “socio-cultural” competences. Additionally, students from the Faculty of Foreign Languages were surveyed about the challenges they face in acquiring SCC.The responses were gathered and subjected to statistical analysis, enabling a detailed clarification of the level of sociocultural competence instruction at the selected higher education institution. This process also helped identify the primary issues encountered by the respondents and identify ways to overcome them.The author emphasizes the necessity for individuals to work effectively in the realm of electronic media and ICT, including reading and creating web pages, finding and analyzing news, and expressing and communicating information in English. Therefore, one of the most effective methods of teaching English is the use of digital tools in higher education classes.The study provides a theoretical justification for the importance of using digital authentic materials in foreign language classes, highlighting the need to optimize these tools according to student needs. According to the modern system of higher pedagogical education in Ukraine, the practical goal for students is to successfully master digital tools and various applications.

Mining and Optimization Strategies for Improving the Teaching Ability Path of Chinese Language and Literature Based on Big Data Analysis

Teachers must receive pedagogy training, curriculum updates with a variety of texts, and the integration of interactive methods in order to improve the teaching skill path for Chinese language and literature. In order to promote a dynamic and all-encompassing approach to education in the sector, emphasis is focused on language competency, cultural awareness, and technology integration. In this manuscript, Mining and Optimization Strategies for Improving the Teaching Ability Path of Chinese Language and Literature Based on Big Data Analysis (MOS-ITACL-BDA-FBPINN) is proposed. Initially input datas are gathered from Chinese MNIST in CSV Dataset. To execute this, input data is pre-processed using Regularized Bias-Aware Ensemble Kalman Filter (RBAEKF) and it is used to identify the missing datas, from the dataset. Then the pre-processed datas are given to FBPINN for improve the intelligence level of teaching ability of the Chinese Language. In general, FBPINN does not express adapting optimization strategies to determine optimal parameters to ensure accurate intelligence level of teaching ability improvement. Hence, the Binary Battle Royale Optimizer Algorithm (BBROA) to optimize FBPINN which accurately improved the teaching ability. Then the proposed MOS-ITACL-BDA-FBPINN is implemented in Python and the performance metrics like Accuracy, Precision, Recall F1-Score, and Area under the Curve (AUC) Score are analysed. Performance of the CTN-BMS-FRP approach attains 18.75%, 26.89% and 32.57% higher accuracy; 16.87%, 24.57% and 32.94% higher Precision and 18.43%, 25.64% and 31.40% higher Recall when analysed through existing techniques likedisc ussing Retracted: Intelligent Analysis and Application of Preschool Education Language Teaching Quality Based on Deep Neural Network (IAA-PELTQ-DNN), the Convolution Neural Network-Assisted Strategies for Improving Teaching Quality of College English Flipped Class (TQ-CEFC-CNN), and Construction of Chinese Language Teaching System Model Based on Deep Learning under the Background of Artificial Intelligence (CTN-CLTS-ANN), methods respectively.

New Communicative Language Teaching Methods: How ChatGPT is Used in English Teaching and Its Impacts

An overview of ChatGPT's use in English instruction within the framework of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approaches is given in this paper, along with an analysis of the implications for language learning. The development of language competency, interaction, and real-world communication are the main focuses of communicative language teaching. In order to improve language learning experiences, this research highlights the integration of ChatGPT, a potent language model, within the CLT framework. Key components of this integration – such as the usage of ChatGPT for real-time feedback, continuous practice, and adaptive learning – are succinctly described in the abstract. It also goes over ChatGPT's implications for individualized, effective, and entertaining English language training. The main focus is on how ChatGPT affects teaching methods, language learning, and student learning outcomes. This research contributes to the understanding of technology-enhanced language education. Through qualitative and quantitative data analysis, the study explores how ChatGPT facilitates interactive language practice, fosters natural language production, and provides personalized feedback. Findings suggest that ChatGPT effectively supplements traditional language instruction by offering authentic language use scenarios and promoting autonomous learning. Implications for language educators and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Importance of Remedial Teaching of English for Indian Higher Education Students from Rural Background

The importance of English language competency cannot be ignored in the globalised world, especially for students in India, where English serves as a bridge language and a platform for higher education and career prospects. As stated by Bansal and Deepika, “The place of English language has been elevated to its highest in the global India. It is considered as key to 'quality education' and 'window to world and opportunities'.” (Bansal and Deepika 30). However, students from rural origins have to struggle greatly to acquire sufficient English language competency, which affects their academic achievement and employment. This paper aims to investigate the importance of remedial English instruction for Indian college students from rural backgrounds, examine the socio-economic and educational elements causing their language problems, and suggest efficient ways to carry out remedial measures.

Arab minority social workers trained in a foreign language: linguistic challenges and coping mechanisms

ABSTRACT The research highlights challenges involved in ensuring professional authentication faced by social workers working in cultural minorities. The findings contribute to the knowledge corpus that discusses authentication. They describe and explain possible consequences of linguistic difficulties arising in Arab minority social workers’ work in Israel. These workers acquired their profession in a foreign language (Hebrew) but work with their native minority population whose mother tongue is Arabic. A phenomenological study elicited data from semi-structured in-depth interviews with 19 Arab welfare bureau social workers. The workers encounter three language difficulties when working with their service users: They are accused of identifying with the hegemon because they adopt its language; they are viewed as foreign because they have difficulty conveying professional messages accurately; and are seen as alien because the Hebrew terminology they use is anchored in a secularist-individualist culture. The research also identified three coping mechanisms: Ignoring the language barriers; being aware but passive, and adopting three active strategies: self-improvement, getting help from the immediate professional milieu and harnessing external resources. The findings reinforce the requirement of ethical codes for language competence in three fields: lifelong learning, policy design (laws, procedures and guidelines) and implementation (interventions, mentoring and supervision).

Digital tools in education: Preschool teacher's perspectives on language development in kindergarten

The study focuses on utilizing digital technologies within the context of preschool education in the Czech Republic, as viewed through the lens of kindergarten teachers. The objective was to find out teachers' perspectives on using digital technologies with a focus on language development in preschools from the point of view of Czech teachers. The survey method was used for data collection. Responses were collected from 80 preschool teachers from the Czech Republic using an online questionnaire; data was analyzed and discussed quantitatively in descriptive analysis. The study revealed that preschool establishments demonstrate a relatively commendable level of digital technology provisioning, which has grown recently with the help of financial subsidies from the government. However, teachers state that there is a lack of management support for effectively integrating them into the curriculum. The survey revealed that they also have to deal with the organizational arrangements of children when using digital technologies, given the number of children in classes. In our study, we paid special attention to areas of language competence that had developed. It was found that teachers prefer applications with simple language development competencies as opposed to complex language skills. They also prefer to use applications that children can use independently. In conclusion, teachers mostly have a positive attitude towards their utilization, under the condition of limiting their use in time and type of content.

Developing linguistic competence for 6th grade students in Vietnam

Developing linguistic competence for junior level students in Vietnam is an emerging issue that needs attention. This paper applies interdisciplinary research methods which are a combination of linguistics and educational sciences. The combination of the questionnaire survey method and class observation is used to evaluate students' language competencies, especially, speaking and listening. The analytical method is used to analyze linguistic skills that are necessary to be created for students during this stage. Developing linguistic competence is considered the most effective means to grow thinking capacity. The scope of this paper is aimed at sixth grade students specifically surveying their linguistic competence thereby providing an overview of the language development stage for juniors at the secondary school level in Vietnam in general and in Ha Dong district, Hanoi in particular. We conducted a case study by collecting data at two secondary schools in Hanoi city (implementation period of two months: December 2021 and February 2022). According to these factual survey results, we can primarily suggest concrete measures to develop linguistic competence for 6th-grade students in Vietnam. This will also be an information source for reference in completing the Literature textbook series edited according to the new “General Education Program in Literature (2018)” in Vietnam which is in the early stages of being put into use.

Code-switching in the speech of a balanced infant bilingual and early talker

This case study investigates codeswitching in infant bilingualism and may be of special interest due to the fact that its participant is an early talker and a balanced bilingual. Drawing on English/Greek child data, it studies the relationship between language competence and type of code-switching from a developmental perspective, and aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of code-switching in infant bilinguals. Code-switching was facilitated by an early onset of syntax and is interpreted as an outcome of the child’s growing grammatical and pragmatic competence, rather than of a lack of linguistic resources. The rich set of longitudinal data features situational, discourse-related and participant-related code-switching events, as well as rare contextualisation examples. Code-switching is observed to be a strategy to attain specific communicative goals, such as disambiguation, clarification, disagreement etc., and is constrained by the grammar of English and Greek and the principles of discourse and language use.

Fostering Child Empowerment Through English Language Competency in Speaking Skills

This research delves into the intricate relationship between English language competency, specifically in speaking skills, and the empowerment of young learners within the context of early childhood education. Combining descriptive qualitative research with an extensive literature review, the study elucidates the profound implications of language proficiency on child empowerment. The research employs a methodology involving in-depth interviews, systematic classroom observations, and content analysis. Subjects comprise young learners in early childhood education, with a focus on their English language proficiency in speaking. Data collection includes semi-structured interviews with educators, parents, and learners, alongside literature review findings. The outcomes reveal that language proficiency functions as a transformative tool, fostering self-confidence, self-expression, and active learning participation. Proficient speakers exhibit enhanced agency and autonomy, equipping them with cognitive tools for academic success and global navigation. Disparities in language competency and empowerment among young learners are identified, necessitating inclusive educational practices and targeted support. This research underscores educators' pivotal role, alongside engaged parents and inclusive curriculum design, in fostering language proficiency as a means of empowering children in early education. The study contributes to a holistic understanding of language's role in shaping the foundations of empowered, lifelong learners.

ART OF GAMIFICATION: EXPLORING THE TRANSFORMATIVE INFLUENCE OF GAMES ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

The article explores the intricate dynamics of language acquisition, highlighting the fact that learning a language is a skill-based endeavour rather than just a subject of knowledge. Language learning primarily relies on mastering the fundamental language abilities, encompassing speaking, listening, reading, and writing. The intimate interaction between active and passive abilities, which results in a comprehensive language competency, highlights the interconnection of various talents. Incorporating games into language classrooms is lauded as an innovative and captivating teaching strategy, fostering engagement, and facilitating effective learning experiences. In addition to making language learning engaging, games enhance student’s engagement, teamwork, and the development of relationships. According to the study, games work as a conduit between the theoretical underpinnings of language learning and the actual, pragmatic application of the language. The study also emphasizes the cognitive and psychological advantages of using games to aid with language learning. It highlights how playing games fosters a joyful and positive learning atmosphere, making language learning engaging and entertaining. The research shows that games are a fantastic equalizer since they reduce stress, foster social interaction, and allow students of all skill levels to play and succeed. The research discusses the benefits of games for language learning and emphasizes the importance of bringing together different language skills in a learner-centered approach. Additionally, it highlights how games can help develop cooperative learning environments, lessen learning anxiety, and improve communicative competence. Thus, this study presents games as a potent and useful instrument in the toolset for teaching English, offering a comprehensive strategy for language learning that surpasses conventional techniques. The study emphasizes the need for innovative and engaging strategies to meet the demands of the rapidly evolving world. It highlights the value of creativity in educational methods and adds to the continuing conversation about cutting-edge language teaching approaches.

Development of reading skills in an adult learning a language

Relevance. The relevance of the study is due to the insufficient level of development of one of the main components of the formation of foreign language competence. Purpose. The purpose of the study is to examine the features of the development of reading skills. Methodology. The methods of logical analysis, induction, deduction, synthesis, comparative, etc were used. Results. A survey using a questionnaire was conducted in two stages; as a result, the form of speech activity that is most effective at the initial stage of language learning was determined. The importance of the correct development of phonetic reading techniques at the earliest stage of language learning was noted. It was highlighted that a substantial role is played by the development of �mature reading� skills, which provides an opportunity to develop critical thinking, the main problems for its implementation were considered. Among other necessary components for the development of reading skills, the need for systematic work with a dictionary, and linguistic, etymological, ethnographic comments on the material were highlighted. Conclusions. The study examined the main causes of low foreign language competence in adults, namely regression, decreased interest, uncertainty, and insufficient allocated time. According to this, the possibilities of resolving these aspects were considered. The recommendations that interact with each other in the system and allow the most effective way to form the necessary reading skills were presented. The practical value of the results obtained is to provide recommendations that will allow forming or improving the skills of one of the most important aspects of foreign language competence in various types of training. Keywords: adult personality; independent language learning; Kazakh language; speech activity; motivation

Развитие иноязычных компетенций студентов в информационной среде вузов России

в статье рассматривается вопрос о значимости использования передовых информационных технологий в обучении иностранному языку при развитии личностно-профессиональных качеств студента. В социуме, где информационные технологии играют все более заметную роль, изучение иностранных языков становится важным фактором для успешной социальной адаптации и карьерного роста. Способность эффективно общаться на иностранном языке в условиях информационного общества представляется первостепенным плюсом на рынке труда и в профессиональной деятельности. Важным для исследования является положение о том, что применение в образовательном процессе современных технологий, таких как компьютерные программы, мобильные приложения, онлайн-платформы и коммуникативные средства, обеспечивают обучающимся доступ к широкому спектру образовательных ресурсов, а также позволяют индивидуализировать обучающий процесс в соответствии с потребностями каждого учащегося. В исследуемой проблематике центральными становятся аспекты развития иноязычной компетенции на волне цифровизации, такие как использование актуальных методик подготовки кадров, влияние межкультурной коммуникации, а также значению изучения иностранных языков в современном информационном обществе. Автор приходит к выводу, что стимулирование иноязычной компетенции у будущих специалистов также способствует улучшению когнитивных способностей, памяти, внимания и логического мышления. Сказанное заставляет полагать, что в контексте профессиональной подготовки студентов иноязычные компетенции позволяют им общаться и сотрудничать с людьми из разных культур, обмениваться опытом и понимать многообразие традиционных особенностей. Это расширяет их мировоззрение, развивает межкультурную компетенцию и содействует расширению социальных связей. the article presents the relevance of implementing new IT technologies in a foreign language teaching that contribute to the development of a student’s personal and professional qualities. In modern society information technology have a prominent resonance and foreign-language education attracts attention as an important factor for successful social adaptation and executive growth. The ability to communicate effectively in a foreign language is a priority way for the professional activity evolution. It is noted that using contemporary technologies in the educational process, such as computer programs, mobile applications, online platforms and communication tools, provides students with access to a wide range of educational resources and, more to the point, allows them to individualize the learning process in accordance with their needs. Particular attention is given to aspects of the progress of foreign language competence in the digitalization procedure. The use of modern teaching methods, the influence of intercultural communication, the importance of learning foreign languages in the current information society have great potential for research. The author comes to the conclusion that the development of foreign language competence helps to improve cognitive abilities of future specialists, improve their memory, consideration and logical thinking. It is emphasized that in the context of students’ professional training, foreign language competencies allow them to communicate and collaborate with people from different cultures, exchange experiences and understand the diversity of cultural characteristics. This broadens their worldview, develops intercultural proficiency and enhances social connections.

Variation in the Usage of Relativisation Strategies in Migrant and Non-migrant English Speakers

ABSTRACT This study considers the use of adnominal restrictive relative clauses based on data from an acceptability rating task. We asked non-migrant native speakers (n = 24) of English and migrant native speakers (n = 28) of English to judge three different types of relative clauses. Results indicated that these speakers rate the relative markers that and zero more positively in line with the current situation in Present-day English. 1 The similar behaviour in the rating shows that major driving forces of language variation such as colloquialisation and Americanisation are stronger than other forces such as language contact. The similarities in the usage of relativisation strategies observed between contemporary Englishes and language competences of migrant and non-migrant speakers support the emergence of a new variety of English similar to other documented varieties that emerged in comparable contexts. 2

Visual statistical learning in preverbal infants at a higher likelihood of autism and its association with later social communication skills.

Visual statistical Learning (SL) allows infants to extract the statistical relationships embedded in a sequence of elements. SL plays a crucial role in language and communication competencies and has been found to be impacted in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). This study aims to investigate visual SL in infants at higher likelihood of developing ASD (HL-ASD) and its predictive value on autistic-related traits at 24-36 months. At 6 months of age, SL was tested using a visual habituation task in HL-ASD and neurotypical (NT) infants. All infants were habituated to a visual sequence of shapes containing statistically predictable patterns. In the test phase, infants viewed the statistically structured, familiar sequence in alternation with a novel sequence that did not contain any statistical information. HL-ASD infants were then evaluated at 24-36 months to investigate the associations between visual SL and ASD-related traits. Our results showed that NT infants were able to learn the statistical structure embedded in the visual sequences, while HL-ASD infants showed different learning patterns. A regression analysis revealed that SL ability in 6-month-old HL-ASD infants was related to social communication and interaction abilities at 24-36 months of age. These findings indicate that early differences in learning visual statistical patterns might contribute to later social communication skills.

Differentiated Approach in Teaching a Foreign Language

At the present stage of teaching a foreign language, one of the main goals is the formation of foreign language competence, which can be considered as a level of development of socio-cultural, linguistic, learning and cognitive competence, thanks to which the student can use the knowledge obtained in the lessons and apply them in life. One of the main ways to achieve this goal is the system-activity approach, which covers all aspects of foreign language acquisition. In this paper we will try to consider all aspects of the system-activity approach. We will find out how to organize the teacher's work so that this approach really fulfills its functions. Speaking about the system-activist approach, it is very important to note that an important point is the different abilities of all students, different levels of knowledge and preparedness. That is why the differentiated approach in teaching a foreign language deserves special attention.

The quality of universal language supporting provision in maintained nursery classrooms in economically disadvantaged areas of England: Identifying strengths and areas for development

Background: Oral language competence provides children with an essential foundation for academic achievement and emotional well-being, yet many children enter school with delayed language and those living in economically disadvantaged areas are at disproportionate risk of experiencing language difficulties. A tiered system, offering high-quality language teaching for all children in early years classrooms, is widely acknowledged as an appropriate means of supporting language learning need. An understanding of the current quality of language supporting practices in English early years settings is essential to inform teaching practice and professional development, but evidence is limited. Methods: This study employed the Communication Supporting Classroom Observation tool in 39 nursery classrooms in economically disadvantaged areas of England to identify strengths of practice and key areas for development. Results: Observations revealed well-equipped physical learning environments and responsive teaching practices, but few structured opportunities for language learning and development. Variation in quality was observed across the nursery session. Conclusions: Findings suggest a need for adaptive professional development programmes supporting the more consistent use of structured language learning opportunities, the enhanced use of interaction promoting strategies and the provision of more complex and contingent language models. Further investigation of language supporting practice at a fine-grained level is desirable.

Multilingual use assessment questionnaire: a proposal for assessing language and literacy experience

The linguistic profile of multilingual individuals can vary significantly due to diversity in linguistic experience. This poses challenges for language researchers, educators, and clinical practitioners. We developed a Multilingual Use Assessment Questionnaire (MUAQ) to capture the heterogeneous nature of multilinguals profiles integrating three dimensions: self-assessment of language(s) competence, language(s) use for mental operations, and language(s) use in different contexts. The questionnaire was administered to bilingual Catalan/Spanish children and adults across three educational levels: elementary school (year 6), secondary school (year 10), and university level. The application of the MUAQ revealed that Catalan/Spanish bilinguals displayed variations in their self-assessed proficiency based on the type of linguistic activity required by each language. While high bilingual competence was concentrated in oral comprehension, production skills exhibited lower bilingual competence and a strong asymmetry between languages emerged in writing. Also, more pronounced preferences for one language were observed for Thinking and Counting. Whereas Catalan (the language of schooling) was more frequently preferred for Counting, a more multilingual approach was observed for Thinking. A significant heterogeneity was also evident in the language(s) used in different contexts, with each third of the study population demonstrating distinct patterns of linguistic behavior depending on the context. An Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) identified two key dimensions (linguistic competence skills and languages involved in mental operations) that accounted for a substantial portion of the variance, while the third dimension (language use in different contexts) bifurcated into situational/communicative vs. personal contexts. These results endorse multidimensional approaches for a comprehensive understanding of multilingualism.