Landscape Fabric Research Articles

Organic Options for Managing Weeds in Highbush Blueberries

Weeds are especially problematic in highbush blueberry which has a long establishment period, shallow-fibrous roots, and poor competitive ability in obtaining water, nutrients and sunlight. Commercial approaches in certified organic blueberry fields compared horticultural management methods in two New Jersey sites. The trials utilized both new and established blueberry blocks having trickle or overhead irrigation. Commercial methods investigated included rotary cultivation, mowing, propane flaming, cover crops, landscape fabric, and various mulches. Mulch comparisons included pine bark mulch, hardwood mulch, coffee grinds, cocoa grinds, municipal leaf mulch, and composted tea leaves. 3' × 12' plots were replicated 4 times in 4 adjoining rows. Applications of 3-4 inches of these mulches within the crop row to a new planting of Duke highbush blueberry have provided a combined weed control level of ca. 95% without landscape fabric and ≈98% with landscape fabric during 2003. Walkway weed suppression in new plantings was achieved with the establishment of two types of fine leafed turf fescues and monthly mowings. Bare ground percentage decreased from 80% to <2% within one year's time as these fine fescues gradually out-competed annual weeds for space. These fescue cover crops increased ground coverage from 8% to >95% over the seven month growing season. Such varieties were selected because they have good germination, require little water, use limited nitrogen and can squeeze out weeds through allelopathy. Applied research studies indicate that several suitable methods can be utilized for effective weed management in organic highbush blueberry production systems.

West to far Michigan: settling the Lower Peninsula, 1815-1860

This is a study of the lower peninsula's occupation by agriculturists, whose presence forever transformed the land and helped to create the modern state of Michigan. This is not simply a history of Michigan, but rather a work that focuses on why the state developed as it did. Employing numerous primary sources, the book traces changes and patterns of settlement crucial to documenting the large-scale development of southern Michigan as a region. Diaries, letters, memoirs, gazetteers, and legal documents serve to transform the more abstract elements of economic and social change into more human terms. Through the experiences of the early Agriculturists process, we can gain insight into how their triumphs played out in communities within the region to produce small-scale elements that comprise the fabric of the larger cultural landscape.

LATE PLEISTOCENE ICE-FLOW DIRECTIONS AND THE AGE OF GLACIAL LANDSCAPES IN NORTHERN LOWER MICHIGAN

Lineation (alignment) of certain landscape features, most of which are glacigenic, and till-fabric data were mapped and used to indicate glacier flow directions in northern lower Michigan. I also reexamine the limit of the Greatlakean (ca. 11,850 14C yr B.P.) ice advance in northern Michigan. My study assumes that reddish-brown (7.5YR and redder) till in the region was deposited by the last ice advance, the Greatlakean, since this color till covers uplands immediately down ice from an established Greatlakean stratigraphic marker bed. Landscape linearity and till-fabric data within the reddish-brown till landscapes of northwestern lower Michigan both show strong northwest-southeast alignment, indicating that Greatlakean ice advanced out of the Lake Michigan basin. Earlier (Port Huron, ca. 13,000 14C yr B.P.) ice deposited brown till of 10YR hue, as evidenced at a borrow pit where reddish-brown Greatlakean till overlies brown drift. Thus, the “7.5YR and redder” vs 10YR hue limit is interpreted as the outer limit of the Greatlakean advance in northern lower Michigan. By mapping this limit only a few tens of km southeast of its only stratigraphically confirmed position at the Cheboygan bryophyte bed, I imply that Greatlakean ice did not advance as far into northeastern lower Michigan as others previously have suggested. Port Huron landforms in brown till show similar alignment and till fabrics to Greatlakean landforms in red till, suggesting that Port Huron ice in northern Michigan (also) advanced primarily out of the Lake Michigan basin. As it advanced from the northwest, flowlines and till fabrics suggest that the Port Huron ice gradually curved, eventually flowing north-to-south in northeastern lower Michigan, nearer the Saginaw Lobe. [Key words: glacial geology, drumlins, landscape fabric, Greatlakean advance, Port Huron advance, till fabric, glacial dynamics.]

Use of fabric and compost mulches for vegetable production in a low tillage, permanent bed system: Effects on crop yield and labor

AbstractWe tested the usefulness of mulching with polypropylene landscape fabric and compost as alternatives to bare soil for growing red cabbage and watermelon. Polypropylene landscape fabric has features similar to the polyethylene film that is popular for commercial vegetable production, but its durability permits multi-year use, which would reduce excessive waste produced from the typical single-season use of polyethylene film. On the other hand, compost used as mulch enhances soil development while providing weed suppression and water retention, among other benefits. Yields of red cabbage and watermelon were measured for 3 years in plots receiving either 10 cm compost, landscape fabric, or no mulch. Labor associated with crop production and weed suppression was measured as time spent on each task. Cabbage yields over 3 years followed the treatment order of compost > no mulch > fabric, while for melon yields it was compost > fabric > no mulch. Total labor required over 3 years for both crops, according to treatments, was fabric > compost > no mulch. However, labor for the fabric-treated plots dropped sharply after the first year, because fabric was left in place after initial placement. Labor for unmulched cabbage plots increased over time due to weeding and transplanting; labor for unmulched and compost-mulched melon plots increased for the same reasons. Compost provided the highest crop yields with a moderate labor investment. Surface-applied compost substantially increased underlying soil nutrient levels. The study indicates that polypropylene landscape fabric may be a potential alternative to the more traditional polyethylene film for permanent beds in vegetable production.

Matted-row Strawberry Production using Landscape Fabrics and Organic Mulch for Weed Control

Three landscape fabrics, Magic Mat®, a heavy black plastic woven fabric with a fuzzy underside; Weed Mat®, a thin black plastic sheet with small holes; and Typar®, a dark gray spun bonded material, with and without a cover of organic oak bark mulch, were evaluated for weed control and ability of strawberry plant roots to establish through the fabrics over a 4-year period. Landscape fabrics reduced weed numbers for the first 3 years in comparison with the bare ground treatment. With few exceptions. the organic mulch did not improve the weed control capability of landscape fabrics. Fruit yield for the Weed Mat and Magic Mat treatments did not differ from the bare ground treatment, but was lower for the Typar treatment when averaged over organic mulch treatments. Fruit yield was higher where the organic mulch was used when averaged over all landscape fabric treatments. Fruit size was slightly larger for the bare ground and smallest for the Typar treatments during the first harvest season, but there was no difference in fruit size by the third year of harvest. Fruit size for the organic mulched plots was slightly larger than that for the unmulched plots the second year of harvest, but there was no difference for the first or third years. The number of strawberry runner plants that rooted and plant row vigor were greater for the Weed Mat, Magic Mat and plots without the landscape fabric than for the Typar plots, particularly in the second and third season. Rooting of runner plants and plant row vigor was better with organic mulch. Landscape fabric tended to reduce extent of rooting, especially in the first season, but it was improved by the application of organic mulch.

600 The Effect of Weed Control Methods on Soil Physical Properties and Plant Growth

There has been recent speculation in trade journals that landscape fabrics, while doing an excellent job of weed control, may have a detrimental effect on ornamental plant growth. A study is in progress to investigate the manner in which hardwood mulch and applied landscape fabric affect soil temperature, soil aeration, and water content over 18 months. Two experiments are in progress, one with compost incorporated at 50% soil volume, the other with no compost incorporation. The experimental design is a randomized complete block with four treatments (mulch, fabric, fabric plus mulch, and control) and four plants per plot. Each plot has been planted with herbaceous perennials so as to allow analysis of treatment effects on plant growth. Soil temperature within plots is monitored on a continual basis. Soil aeration is measured every two weeks using installed oxygen tubes. Water content is measured using time domain reflectometry 24 and 48 h after a significant rainfall event. Preliminary results suggest that hardwood mulch and landscape fabric are similar in their effect on soil water content 0 to 48 h after a significant rainfall event. However, after 48 h, hardwood mulch increases soil water retention compared to landscape fabric.

Effect of Weed Control Methods Upon Soil Physical Properties and Plant Growth

There has been speculation in trade journals that landscape fabrics, while doing a excellent job of weed control, may have a detrimental effect upon growth of landscape plants. A study is in progress to investigate the manner in which applied landscape fabric affects soil aeration, soil temperature, and water infiltration rate over a period of 18 months. The experimental design is a split-plot with main plots specified as composted or non-composted areas. Within each main plot, the design is a randomized complete-block with four blocks and four treatments per block (control, bark mulch, landscape fabric, landscape fabric + bark mulch). Each plot has been planted with herbaceous species so as to allow analysis of treatment effects upon plant growth. Re-dox potential is recorded weekly as a measure of soil oxygen status. Infiltration rate is measured biweekly, and soil temperatures within plots are monitored on a continuous basis. Preliminary results suggest that landscape fabrics limit oxygen exchange and that this may adversely affect plant growth. As the study progresses, an attempt will be made to contrast any adverse effects of landscape fabric with the obvious benefits offered by increased weed control.

Soil Temperature, Soil Moisture, Weed Control, and Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Response to Mulching

Shredded newspaper (2.5, 7.6, 12.7, and 17.8 cm depth), chopped newspaper (2.5 and 7.6 cm), wheat straw (15.2 cm), black plastic, and plastic landscape fabric were evaluated during 1993 and 1994 in West Virginia for their effect on soil temperature, soil moisture, weed control, and yield in tomato. Shredded newspaper and wheat straw applied at 0, 2, 4, or 6 weeks after transplanting (WAT) and napropamide (2.1 kg ai/ha) plus metribuzin (0.28 kg ai/ha) applied at transplanting were evaluated during 1992 and 1993 in North Carolina for effect on weed control and tomato yield. Results from West Virginia indicated that shredded (7.6 cm) and chopped (7.6 cm) newspaper conserved moisture similar to higher application rates of the shredded material. Higher newspaper mulching rates reduced soil temperature compared to black plastic and bare ground. Chopped newspaper controlled weeds more consistently than other treatments. At least 7.6 cm of chopped newspaper mulch was required to control weeds at least 90%. Wheat straw was not as effective in controlling weeds as 7.6 cm or greater of newspaper mulch. Chopped newspaper provided higher tomato yields than shredded newspaper applied at the same rates. Mulches applied at 0, 2, or 4 WAT resulted in weed control similar to the chemical treatment. In North Carolina, mulches applied 2 or 4 WAT resulted in tomato yields similar to the chemical treatment. Shredded and chopped newspaper have potential as a mulching material but may vary in effect in different environments and vegetable crops.

The Effect of Weed Control Methods upon Soil Physical Properties and Plant Growth

There has been recent speculation in trade journals that landscape fabrics, while doing a excellent job of weed control, may have a detrimental effect upon ornamental plant growth. A study is in progress to investigate the manner in which applied landscape fabric affects soil aeration, soil temperature, and water infiltration rate over a period of 18 months. The experimental design is a split-plot with main plots identified as composted or non-composted areas. Within each main plot, the design is a randomized complete block with four blocks and three treatments per block (control, organic mulch, landscape fabric + organic mulch). Each plot has been planted with herbaceous perennials so as to allow analysis of treatment effects upon plant growth. Re-dox potential is measured on a weekly and infiltration rate is measured on a biweekly basis. Soil temperature within plots is monitored on a continuous basis. Preliminary results suggest that landscape fabrics have a detrimental effect on soil aeration and that this likely has a adverse effect upon plant growth. An attempt will be made in this study to contrast any adverse effects of landscape fabric use with the obvious benefits offered by increased weed control.

Technical Note: Field Measurement of Etiolated Growth of Rhizomatous Grasses

Defoliation effects on grasses have been quantified with measurements of etiolated growth since the 1960's, however, field techniques for measuring etiolated growth of rhizomatous grasses with dispersed tillers have not been reported. Tents constructed with landscape fabric were used in a field study of 2 species of rhizomatous grass. When manufactured, the woven polypropylene fabric is needle punched for air and water permeability. Light that may pass through perforations has no measurable effect on etiolated growth as indicated by a test of single and double layers of fabric. Tents can be sized to shade borders around interior sample areas to prevent translocation from outside tillers to harvested tillers. Landscape fabric tents are light weight and reusable and eliminate breakage, water vapor, and storage problems associated with other covers.

Israel's citrus grove landscape — an opportunity to balance urbanization with cultural values

The world-wide familiar process of agricultural lands being urbanized is at present accelerating in the center of Israel. Agricultural landscapes play a significant role in balancing urbanization and one of the conspicuous agricultural landscapes of that area is citrus groves. In Israel, citrus groves bear unique historical and symbolic meanings and the ongoing construction process threatens not only the whole pattern of an agricultural landscape fabric which at present acts as the green lungs in a heavily populated area, but a cultural heritage as well. Israeli citriculture had already suffered economic losses during the 1980s and new governmental land policies are threatening a total disappearance of this landscape from central Israel. This article describes the forces which threaten non-built lands in the core region of Israel, and suggests that viewing the threat to this specific culturally valued landscape — citrus groves, within the context of a pending open space master plan — can lead to maintaining the physical presence of selected groves, as well as strengthening the argument for preserving agricultural lands in the core region.

INTRA-NURSERY SPREAD OF PLANT PATHOGENS: A CASE FOR EXCLUSION AND SANITATION AS DISEASE CONTROL METHODOLOGIES

Four novel and five commonly occurring diseases of ornamental nursery stock were evaluated for patterns of dissemination and rapidity of movement within a commercial nursery. Newly acquired but infected nursery stock provided a readily available inoculum source. Dissemination, pathogen movement, and disease development were positively correlated to minimal plant proximities, overhead irrigation, and communal root or soil environments. Water containment and recycling systems allowed movement of waterborne pathogens between plants on the same bench, in the same row, or on contiguous sheets of plastic or landscape fabric. Diseased plants located above uninfected stock or upstream or inside overhead irrigation systems provided a source for rapid aerial spread of conidia. Detached diseased plant parts provided rapid physical movement of pathogens and disease developed despite applications of fungicides. Exclusion of diseased plant materials accompanied by rigorous sanitation offer important means of limiting pathogen movement within the nursery.

PERFORMANCE OF OWN-ROOTED `PREMIER' RABBITEYE BLUEBERRY VS. `PREMIER' GRAFTED ON V. ARBOREUM THROUGH THREE HARVEST SEASONS ON A FUQUAY SOIL

Own-rooted `Premier' blueberry (V. ashei Reade) was compared to `Premier' grafted on V. arboreum Marsh. (sparkleberry) for yield and fruit characteristics in a five-rep RCB design with three plants/rep. With grafted plants, three reps were on rootstock #17 and two on rootstock #10, and results were combined for statistical analyses. Production of suckers by rootstocks was also recorded. Plants wereestablished on an upland doughty mineral Fuquay soil, modified with sawdust, at Jackson Springs, N.C. Supplemental irrigation was applied only in the establishment year and the following year, and landscape fabric was installed in the rows for weed control also in the year following establishment. `Premier' grafted on V. arboreum yielded significantly higher than own-rooted `Premier' in all three harvest seasons. Fruit size on grafted plants was also significantly larger than on own-rooted plants in harvest years 2 and 3. There were no differences in fruit color, picking scar, firmness, or flavor in years 2 and 3, and only small differences in harvest year 1. The data for years 2 and 3 indicated that there were differences among stocks in yield; however, both graft combinations were higher-yielding than own-rooted plants. There were also differences among stock clones for the number of suckers produced in harvest years 2 and 3. The highest-yielding graft combination also had the lowest number of rootstock suckers.

Chemically Controlling Root Escape in Pot-in-pot Production of River Birch and Yoshino Cherry

Three experiments were conducted to determine the feasibility of using Biobarrier, a landscape fabric with trifluralin herbicide-impregnated nodules, of various sizes to prevent root escape of trees from the drainage holes of 56-liter containers in below-ground pot-in-pot (P&P) and above-ground Keeper Upper (KU) nursery production systems. In addition, side holes or slits were cut in some container walls to test the effect of Biobarrier on the prevention of circling roots. In Expt. 1 (P&P), Betula nigra L. `Heritage' (river birch) trees with no Biobarrier had root ratings for roots escaped through drainage holes that indicated a 5-fold increase in numbers of roots than for treatments containing Biobarrier. All Biobarrier treatments reduced root escape and resulted in commercially acceptable control. In Expt. 2 (KU), control and the Biobarrier treatment river birch trees (30 nodules) had commercially unacceptable root escape. In Expt. 3 (P&P), control and 10-nodule treatment Prunus × yedoensis Matsum. (Yoshino cherry) trees had commercially unacceptable root escape, but treatments containing 20 and 40 nodules resulted in commercially acceptable control. Biobarrier did not limit shoot growth in any of the experiments. The results of these experiments indicate that Biobarrier did not prevent circling roots, but sheets containing at least 8 or 20 nodules of trifluralin acceptably prevented root escape from drainage holes in the pot-in-pot production of 56-liter container river birch trees and Yoshino cherry trees, respectively.

Effects of Ground Cover and Formulation on Herbicides in Runoff Water from Miniature Nursery Sites

Granules of isoxaben plus trifluralin and liquid applications of isoxaben plus oryzalin were applied to miniature nursery plots covered with plastic, woven landscape fabric, or gravel with no cover. Herbicide concentrations were monitored in runoff water over a 30 d period. Runoff losses of isoxaben from the sprayable formulation applied to gravel were 5% greater than from plastic and 4% greater than losses from fabric in 1992. Similarly, oryzalin losses from the sprayable formulation applied to gravel were 7% greater than losses from plastic and 4% greater than losses from the fabric ground cover. In contrast, loss of isoxaben from the granular formulation applied to plastic was 7% greater than loss from gravel in 1993. Isoxaben losses from the granular formulation applied to fabric were intermediate. Trifluralin losses from the granular formulation applied to plastic and fabric were both 3% greater than losses from gravel. In addition, isoxaben losses from the granular formulation were 11 and 10% greater than loss from the sprayable formulation applied to the plastic and fabric-covered plots, respectively. Isoxaben losses from the sprayable formulation applied to gravel were 11% greater than losses from the granular formulation. In an experiment to determine herbicide release patterns and the effect of light on residues from the granular formulation of isoxaben and trifluralin in irrigation effluent, water was monitored for 36 d. Approximately 20% of the applied isoxaben and 7% of the applied trifluralin was detected in irrigation water during the 36 d period. These studies indicate that runoff losses and the ultimate fate of isoxaben, oryzalin, and trifluralin applied in nursery settings depend on factors including ground cover composition, herbicide formulation, and photochemical degradation.

Innovative Herbicide Application Methods and Their Potential for Use in the Nursery and Landscape Industries

Chemical weed control is an important weed management option in nursery crop production and landscape maintenance. Improved methods of herbicide delivery can increase efficacy of chemical control and minimize off-site movement, applicator exposure, and incorrect herbicide application. Certain innovative technologies show potential for addressing these issues in the nursery industry. Slow-release herbicide tablets have shown promise in container production. Horticultural collars, treated paper, and treated mulch are potential ways of applying herbicides in container crop production and/or landscape maintenance. Horticultural collars contain herbicides between two layers of a carrier such as a landscape fabric. A rapidly degradable paper can be pretreated with an herbicide for a precise application rate. Mulch can be treated with a herbicide prior to use in the landscape for improved weed control. Herbicides applied through the clip-cut pruning system could control weeds selectively in nurseries and landscapes. Each of these methods may address one or more concerns about off-site movement, calibration, and applicator exposure to pesticides.

Relationship Among Orangestriped Oakworm (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) Frass Length, Frass Production, Host Plant, and Defoliation

Defoliation of urban oak trees by the orangestriped oakworm, Anisota senatoria (J. E. Smith), and associated frass has become a significant problem in southeastern Virginia. Measurements of frass length and production provided a decision-making guideline for A. senatoria management. Frass length was used to differentiate A. senatoria instars reared on Q. palustris (Muenchhausen), pin oak. Host plants significantly affected A. senatoria frass length and production per larva and host plants should be considered when determining instars. Frass length was longer and frass production higher when larvae were reared on Q. nigra (water oak), Q. phellos (willow oak), Q. coccinea (scarlet oak), and Q. palustris compared with six other species. Frass length was shorter in second, fourth, and fifth instars when larvae were reared on Q. alba (white oak) compared with six, eight, and five other species, respectively. Landscape fabrics were used to collect frass and recovered 90% of all frass deposited. Frass production on small pin oaks (mean ht = 2.1 m, mean diameter at breast ht = 6.3 cm) was significantly correlated with defoliation. An aesthetic injury level of 25% defoliation resulted in frass collections of 2.2 g per tree.

Evaluation of Landscape Fabrics in Suppressing Growth of Weed Species

Abstract Two tests were conducted to evaluate weed penetration up through landscape fabrics. The degree of weed suppression varied depending on the specific landscape fabric. No landscape fabric gave total suppression of weeds tested. Sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia L.) and smallflower morningglory (Jacquemontia tamnifolia (L.) Grisebach.) were inhibited by all landscape fabrics. Growth of pigweed (Aranthus sp.), bermudagrass (Cynodon datylon (L.) Persoon.), yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus L.), and johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense (L.) Persoon.) was suppressed by certain landscape fabrics.

YIELD OF `QUINAULT' OVERBEARING STRAWBERRIES USING MULCHES AND ROW COVERS IN INTERIOR, ALASKA

Yields of `Quinault' everbearing strawberries were compared during three seasons for plants grown under eight different mulch treatments with or without polyethylene row covers. In 1987, yields using clear polyethylene mulch with or without row covers (3.81 kg/m2 and 3.45 kg/m2, respectively) were significantly greater than all other mulch, treatments. Yields ranged from 1.05 kg/m2 to 2.60 kg/m2 for black polyethylene; black over white two-sided, embossed polyethylene; black latex liquid; permeable landscape fabric; white over black two-sided, embossed polyethylene mulch, all with row covers or the unmulched control plot without a row cover. During the second year, yields using clear polyethylene mulch were significantly greater than all treatments except for black polyethylene (5.32 kg/m2 and 4.74 kg/m2, respectively). Yields for the other mulch treatments ranged from 3.55 kg/m2 to 3.85 kg/m2. The summer of 1988 was warmer than average which may account for the improved performance of the black polyethylene mulch. In 1989 results were similar to 1987 in which the clear polyethylene mulch had significantly higher yields (5.66 kg/m2) than all other mulches (2.12 - 4.31 kg/m2). Clear polyethylene mulch with or without row covers is recommended for everbearing strawberry production in Alaska,

USE OF GEOTEXTILE DISCS AS CHEMICAL CARRIERS FOR CONTAINER NURSERY STOCK PRODUCTION

Discs of several materials, including paper, fiberglass, black polyethylene and several woven and nonwoven (spunbonded) polypropylene geotextiles or landscape fabrics, were tested for container weed control. Weed growth developed with some materials due to decomposition and lack of proper fit. One commercially available combination geotextile-herbicide product gave excellent weed control. A slow-release fertilizer was then attached, giving not only excellent weed control but also promoting satisfactory nursery plant growth. This concept of using a geotextile disc as a chemical carrier (a “horticultural collar”) is being further developed.