Landscape Development Model Research Articles

The Model of Landscape Development in Big Cities Of Central Java

The existence of urban parks as a part of urban green space is very important for the environment and the citizen of the city, and inseparable part from the urban landscape. In its development, the existence of an urban parks could create a safe, comfortable, productive, and visually aesthetical environment. The problem arising now is a view that the urban parks are often unsuitable with the surrounding. Therefore, the parks are not functional and does not have significant visual. So that, this research is aimed to reveal model of landscape development in big cities in Central Java. The method used is descriptive qualitative that can describe the detail of problem, in determining the plan to overcome the problem. The research location will focused on big cities in Central Java with potential landscape that can be improved. The results of the research will be composed in an international scientific journals and is expected to be a reference in the field of urban landscape arrangement.

Linking Soil Moisture Variation and Abundance of Plants to Geomorphic Processes: A Generalized Model for Erosion‐Uplifting Landscapes

AbstractThe diffusive and advective erosion‐created landscapes have similar structure (hillslopes and channels) across different scales regardless of variations in drivers and controls. The relative magnitude of diffusive erosion to advective erosion (D/K ratio) in a landscape development model controls hillslope length, shape, and drainage density, which regulate soil moisture variation, one of the critical resources of plants, through the contributing area (A) and local slope (S) represented by a topographic index (TI). Here we explore the theoretical relation between geomorphic processes, TI, and the abundance and distribution of plants. We derived an analytical model that expresses the TI with D, K, and A. This gives us the relation between soil moisture variation and geomorphic processes. Plant tolerance curves are used to link plant performance to soil moisture. Using the hypothetical tolerance curves of three plants, we show that the abundance and distribution of xeric, mesic, and hydric plants on the landscape are regulated by the D/K ratio. Where diffusive erosion is the major erosion process (large D/K ratio), mesic plants have higher abundance relative to xeric and hydric plants and the landscape has longer and convex‐upward hillslope and low channel density. Increasing the dominance of advective erosion increases relative abundance of xeric and hydric plants dominance, and the landscape has short and concave hillslope and high channel density.

The Study of Landscape Model in Semarang City

A landscape is the part of green open space that becomes one of urban supporting elements needed by society. The landscape in the form of city park supports the urban landscape. This urban landscape has a power to shape the city’s character and to keep its sustainability, and this landscape is also needed by society as a public space. However, the number of green open spaces is increasingly depleted, and the number of existing green open spaces has not fullfiled the government’s standard. Recently, the Municipal Government of Semarang is doing an effort to fulfill the need of green open spaces in the form of city parks. Nevertheless, these parks have not opitmumly functioned and have low quality, so they can not provide comforts and safety for people in the the city. Based on this condition, the purpose of this research is to study landscape model of Semarang City. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative method with case study approach able to describe a detailed landscape design, hence determining a better model of landscape development in Semarang City.The result of this research hopefully becomes an input into the development of sustainable landscape model in Semarang City.

Alluviated soils of the Saint-Petersburg City

Saint-Petersburg macro urban landscape is situated in the most important part of the Baltic environment. This urban landscape is situated in the Neva Lowland and is known as the most anthropogenically transformed part of Russian North-West and Scandinavian region. Saint-Petersburg city has a huge area of hydraulically constructed (alluvial) soils or soil-like bodies, situated on the banks of the Gulf of Finland. These constructed grounds form the territory of parks in residential areas. Soils of the alluvial territories, created by human, play an important role in landscapes functioning and formation of ecological stability. Alluvial filled territories are considered as a semi-natural environmental model of landscape development in urban conditions. New formed soils of artificial landscapes have been described and their ecological functions are discussed as well. Constructed ground is characterized by problematic physical properties, which are not favourable for plants, soils of new formed plots show evidences of increased hyrdomorphism, gleyfication and formation of contrast layers phenomena. Artificial grounds of new hydraulically formed lands are characterized by number of soil-ecological problems. Refs 33. Figs 2. Tables 2.

Post-closure biosphere assessment modelling: comparison of complex and more stylised approaches

Geological disposal facilities are the preferred option for high-level radioactive waste, due to their potential to provide isolation from the surface environment (biosphere) on very long timescales. Assessments need to strike a balance between stylised models and more complex approaches that draw more extensively on site-specific information. This paper explores the relative merits of complex versus more stylised biosphere models in the context of a site-specific assessment. The more complex biosphere modelling approach was developed by the Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co (SKB) for the Formark candidate site for a spent nuclear fuel repository in Sweden. SKB's approach is built on a landscape development model, whereby radionuclide releases to distinct hydrological basins/sub-catchments (termed 'objects') are represented as they evolve through land rise and climate change. Each of seventeen of these objects is represented with more than 80 site specific parameters, with about 22 that are time-dependent and result in over 5000 input values per object. The more stylised biosphere models developed for this study represent releases to individual ecosystems without environmental change and include the most plausible transport processes. In the context of regulatory review of the landscape modelling approach adopted in the SR-Site assessment in Sweden, the more stylised representation has helped to build understanding in the more complex modelling approaches by providing bounding results, checking the reasonableness of the more complex modelling, highlighting uncertainties introduced through conceptual assumptions and helping to quantify the conservatisms involved. The more stylised biosphere models are also shown capable of reproducing the results of more complex approaches. A major recommendation is that biosphere assessments need to justify the degree of complexity in modelling approaches as well as simplifying and conservative assumptions. In light of the uncertainties concerning the biosphere on very long timescales, stylised biosphere models are shown to provide a useful point of reference in themselves and remain a valuable tool for nuclear waste disposal licencing procedures.

Biogeomorphic influence of soil depth to bedrock, volcanic ash soils, and surface tephra on silversword distribution, Haleakalā Crater (Maui, Hawai'i)

This research examines the spatial distribution of Haleakalā silverswords (Argyroxiphium sandwicense DC subsp. macrocephalum) over basaltic 'a'ā lava flows at Silversword Loop, Haleakalā Crater (Maui, Hawai'i). The overall study goal is to situate an extensive field data set within an historical geomorphic framework to propose a conceptual, biogeomorphic model of landscape development at Silversword Loop. Landscape features were investigated along two belt transects (111–120m long) crossing lava-flow deposits at ~2175m; the lava flows, >4.5km long, originated ~2700 YBP at Pu’u O Māui, a large cinder cone. Transects consist of contiguous 3 × 3m (9m2) quadrats; plot data include topographic profiles, soil depth to bedrock, size of surface tephra – determined by photosieving – and plant density; 23 soil samples were analyzed within 10 profiles. Weathered lava outcrops, tephra blocks (≥10cm), and cobbles (5–10cm) cover lava-flow ridges; the gently sloping flanks of lava-flow deposits merge into intervenient concave troughs, filled with volcanic ash and small tephra. Soils along ridges are thin (≤17cm), whereas profiles on troughs are deeper (≤110cm). Soils are sandy volcanic Inceptisols (Lithic, Typic, and Aridic Lithic Haplustepts) averaging 21.6% gravel, 96.8% sand, and 3.2% fines (silt+clay); mean organic matter is just 0.92%. These soils provide low water retention (23.2% at field capacity) and rapid infiltration. Deeper trough soils are largely devoid of plants. In contrast, silverswords are virtually restricted to shallow soils on lava-flow crests, where they densely cluster about outcrops and blocks: 90% of plants grow on soils ≤40cm deep, and 71.3% occupy plots with ≤40% ash cover; 84.4% of rosettes are rooted on outcrops or near stones; only 4.4% grow on soil; and 11.2% germinated on plant litter.Patterns of lava-flow weathering and soil depth to bedrock control silversword distribution at Silversword Loop. Shallow basalt bedrock and outcrops restrict soil drainage, providing a perched water table that silversword roots can exploit. Surface blocks also provide safe, stable microhabitats, thus rosettes grow preferentially near stones. Geomorphological, pedological, and ecological data are integrated into a biogeomorphic sequence of soil development and landscape evolution at Silversword Loop for the past three millennia, first through the eruptions and ash deposits of Pu'u O Māui, followed (~970–940 BP) by pyroclastic activity in Halāli'i and Ka lu'u o Ka 'O'o cinder cones.

Genesis of the ‘glacial curvilineation’ landscape by meltwater processes under the former Scandinavian Ice Sheet, Poland

Dobrzyń Plateau in central Poland contains a suite of enigmatic glacial bedforms termed ‘glacial curvilineations’ (GCL). These landforms occur within tunnel valleys forming a complex anabranched network. GCL consist of a series of parallel ridges extending for as much as 5km. Over their length, GCL ridges are parallel to neighboring ridges and to tunnel valley margins. Internal GCL composition consists of sand, gravel and till distributed randomly within ridges and in intervening troughs. Electric resistivity tomography surveys confirm the sediment distribution seen in field exposures. Truncated beds near the ridge forms and the heterogeneous nature and distribution of sediments suggest an erosional (rather than accretionary) origin for GCL. In this case, internal GCL composition is not related to GCL genesis: it records proglacial and subglacial conditions prior to GCL shaping by erosion. The terminal zone of the anabranched tunnel valley network is characterized by a broad apron-like ice-marginal sedimentary complex. Sand and gravel dominate sedimentary facies within this zone. Sediments record evidence of meltwater sedimentation associated with supraglacial melting near the ice margin and high-energy subglacial outbursts emanating from tunnel valleys. This interpretation suggests that the GCL surface is a regional unconformity representing an erosional landscape where sediments within landforms offer limited insights into landform genesis (cf., Sharpe et al., 2004). Subglacial meltwater erosion is proposed as unifying model of landscape development as it accounts for both erosion of tunnel valleys and GCL, and meltwater-dominated sedimentation in the ice-marginal sedimentary complex.

The influence of geomorphic processes on plant distribution and abundance as reflected in plant tolerance curves

Ecologists describe plant distribution using direct gradient analysis, by which a tolerance curve of species abundance is described along an environmental gradient (any environmental variable that affects plant distribution). Soil moisture is generally the gradient in low‐relief areas that explains the most variation. Traditional direct gradient analyses have used terrain structure (i.e., transects up or down hillslopes) as a correlate to soil moisture. Here we use a numerical tectonic and geomorphic process‐based landscape development model to create two landscapes with different geomorphic characteristics: (1) to demonstrate the influence of geomorphic processes on soil moisture patterns and plant distribution and (2) to evaluate the effectiveness of transects in describing moisture gradients and tolerance curves on landscapes dominated by creep or overland flow. We use a topographic index to approximate the distribution of soil moisture as it is determined by the shape of these different landscapes. Transects are placed on hillslopes in each model landscape and used to construct tolerance curves.Results show that transect methods that use the distance from the channel to the ridgeline as an approximation of soil moisture create variable tolerance curves for the same plant both within a single landscape and between different landscapes. The reason for these differences is that transects do not take into account the three‐dimensional landscape form that explains water movement. Landscapes have regions of convexity and flow path divergence and regions of concavity and flow path convergence that, along with hillslope length, determine contributing area. In addition, hillslope curvature results in varying capacities to retain water. However, when the topographic index is used instead of hillslope transect position, tolerance curves from the same and different landscapes reflect the differences the topographic structure has on soil moisture. We thus show that traditional methods of direct gradient analysis are not always adequate as they do not tend to consider that soil moisture depends on hillslope length, curvature, and slope. Furthermore, we show that within and between landscapes there are differences in spatial distributions of soil moisture that are reflections of the geomorphic processes that created them.

Landscape development in the safety assessment of a potential repository in Forsmark, Sweden

One challenge in the analysis of far future radiological effects of a deep geological repository is to handle changes in time on ecosystems potentially affected. Under Swedish regulations, the time span that needs to be assessed is 100,000 yrs or more. This has historically been treated by using a reference biosphere that, in short, takes into account the total data range of the site properties that may change with different climates and sites. One problem with this strategy has always been to show that these reference biospheres have relevance for a specific site. To overcome this problem, SKB has adopted a strategy that uses site specific information together with scientific literature to build a narrative. This narrative describes the site development during a 100,000-yrs period (time frame of the present global glacial cycle). The information is used to compile a number of models that describe how the succession of abiotic and biotic features and their properties will develop at the site. The resulting Landscape Development Model is finally used in two ways: to tell the narrative of the site development based on scientific understanding and interdisciplinary consensus, and to populate the Radionuclide Model that is used to describe the effects of released radionuclides in a changing environment.

Characteristics of steady state fluvial topography above fault‐bend folds

In steady state convergent orogens, erosion balances lateral as well as vertical bedrock motions. For simple geometrical reasons, the difference between the total steady state erosion flux and its vertical component is up to 30% for typical fluvial slopes and bedrock streamline inclinations, suggesting that lateral advection is also likely to be expressed topographically. In order to understand these geomorphologic consequences, we focus on steady state topography developed on active fault‐bend folds. First, we derive an analytical solution for the slopes of detachment‐limited streams that incorporates lateral advection. Next, we conduct experiments using a numerical two‐dimensional landscape evolution model (Channel‐Hillslope Integrated Landscape Development model (CHILD)) incorporating linear diffusion on hillslopes and detachment‐limited stream channel incision above a fault‐bend fold. The concavity and steepness indices of steady state long profiles are functions of bedrock velocity magnitude and direction, streamflow direction, and fluvial erosivity. Asymmetry of mountain range profiles varies as a function of fluvial erosivity or bedrock velocity only if we account for the lateral velocity component. This asymmetry is equally sensitive to this lateral component, fluvial incision, and hillslope diffusion. However, the effect of diffusion on drainage divide position is significant only at high diffusivities, short length scales, low bedrock advection rates, or relatively low fluvial erosivity. Thus in most mountain ranges and fault blocks, drainage divide migration is expected to be dictated by stream channel erosion. Model results are shown to be consistent with topography in the Siwalik Hills, Nepal, which overlie fault‐bend folds produced above the frontal fault systems in the Himalayan foreland.

Bedrock landscape development modeling: Calibration using field study, geochronology, and digital elevation model analysis

Stream power–based models of bedrock landscape development are effective at producing synthetic topography with realistic fl uvial-network topology and three-dimensional topography, but they are diffi cult to calibrate. This paper examines ways in which fi eld observations, geochronology, and digital elevation model (DEM) data can be used to calibrate a bedrock landscape development model for a specifi c study site. We fi show how uplift rate, bedrock erodibility, and landslide threshold slope are related to steady-state relief, hypsometry, and drainage density for a wide range of synthetic topographies produced by a stream power–based planform landscape development model. Our results indicate that low uplift rates and high erodibility result in low-relief, high drainage density, fl uvially dominated topography, and high uplift rates and low erodibility leads to high-relief, low drainage density, mass wasting–dominated topography. Topography made up of a combination of flchannels and threshold slopes occurs for only a relatively narrow range of model parameters. Using measured values for hypsometric integral, drainage density, and relief, quantitative values of bedrock erodibility can be further constrained, particularly if uplift rates are independently known. We applied these techniques to three sedimentary rock units in the western Transverse Ranges in California that have experienced similar climate, uplift, and incision histories. The 10 Be surface exposure datincision of initially low-relief topography there occurred during the last ~60 k.y. We estimated the relative dependence of drainage area and channel slope on erosion rate in the stream power law from slope-area data, and inferred values for bedrock erodibility ranging from 0.09 to 0.3 m (0.2–0.4) k.y. –1 for the rock types in this study area.

Modeling the effects of vegetation‐erosion coupling on landscape evolution

From rainfall interception at the canopy to added soil cohesion within the root zone, plants play a significant role in directing local geomorphic dynamics, and vice versa. The consequences at the regional scale, however, are known in less quantitative terms. In light of this, the numerical Channel‐Hillslope Integrated Landscape Development model is equipped with coupled vegetation‐erosion dynamics, allowing for sensitivity analysis on the various aspects of vegetation behavior. The processes considered are plant growth, plant death, and the additional resistance imparted by plants against erosion. With each process is associated a single parameter, whose effects on the spatiotemporal nature of a 1 km2 basin is studied. Through their inhibition of erosion, plants steepened the topography and reduced drainage density, yet, in doing so, made erosive events more extreme. Plants more susceptible to erosion act to decouple neighboring cells and cause extensive and perennial network and channel adjustments.

Archaeological and Palaeo-environmental Investigations of the Upper Allen Valley, Cranborne Chase, Dorset (1998–2000): a New Model of Earlier Holocene Landscape Development

A combination of on- and off-site palaeo-environmental and archaeological investigations of the upper Allen valley of Dorset conducted in 1998–2000 has begun to reveal a different model of landscape development than those previously put forward. A combination of off-site geoarchaeological and aerial photographic survey and palynological analyses of two relict palaeochannel systems, and sample investigations of four Bronze Age round barrows and a Neolithic enclosure, have been combined with inter-regional summaries of the archaeological and molluscan records to re-examine the prehistoric landscape dynamics in the study area. Preliminary results suggest that woodland development in the earlier Holocene appears to have been more patchy than the presumed model of full climax deciduous woodland. With open areas still present in the Mesolithic, the area witnessed its first exploitation of the chalk downs, thus slowing and altering soil development of the downlands. Consequently, many areas perhaps never developed thick, well structured, clay-enriched soils (or argillic brown earths), but rather thin brown earths. By the later Neolithic these under-developed soils had become thin rendzinas, largely as a consequence of human exploitation. The presence of thinner and less well-developed soils over large areas of downland removes the necessity for envisaging extensive soil erosion and thick aggraded deposits in the valley bottom in later prehistory. The investigations have suggested that, if there were major changes in vegetation and soil complexes, these had already occurred by the Neolithic rather than in the Bronze Age as suggested by previous researchers, and the area has remained relatively stable since.

Environment and Land Use in the Wadi Faynan, Southern Jordan: the Second Season of Geoarchaeology and Landscape Archaeology (1997)

This report describes the second season of fieldwork by an interdisciplinary team of archaeologists and geographers integrating geomorphological, palaeoecological, archaeological and hydrological studies to construct a model of landscape development for the past 10,000 years in the Wadi Faynan in southern Jordan. Geomorphological fieldwork has provided further understanding of the sedimentary fills of the survey area, and underlined the importance of tectonic activity as a controlling environmental process. Over half of the complex field system WF4 has been recorded in terms of wall construetion, suiface artefacts, and hydrological features. A complex sequence of settlement and land use is emerging from these studies, especially regarding systems of floodwater farming over the past three thousand years. Field observations of wadi downcutting and preliminary pollen analysis both suggest that one factor in this development has been considerable environmental change over the same period.

Post‐Gondwana geomorphic evolution of southwestern Africa: Implications for the controls on landscape development from observations and numerical experiments

The relationship between morphology and surficial geology is used to quantify the denudation that has occurred across southwestern Africa since the fragmentation of Gondwana during the Early Mesozoic. Two main points emerge. Significant denudation, of the order of kilometers, is widespread except in the Kalahari region of the continental interior. The denudation is systematically distributed so that the continental exterior catchment, draining directly to the Cape basin, is denuded to a greater depth than the interior catchment inland of the Great Escarpment The analysis also implies that the majority of the denudation occurred before the beginning of the Cenozoic for both the exterior and interior catchments. Existing models of landscape development are reviewed, and implications of the denudation chronology are incorporated into a revised conceptual model. This revision implies that the primary effect of rifting on the subsequent landscape evolution is that it generates two distinct drainage regimes. A marginal upwarp, or rift flank uplift, separates rejuvenated rivers that drain into the subsiding rift from rivers in the continental interior that are deflected but not rejuvenated. The two catchments evolve independently unless they are integrated by breaching of the marginal upwarp. If this occurs, the exterior baselevel is communicated to the interior catchment that is denuded accordingly. Denudation rates generally decrease as the margin evolves, and this decrease is reinforced by the exposure of substrate that is resistant to denudation and/or a change to a more arid climate. The observations do not reveal a particular style of smaller‐scale landscape evolution, such as escarpment retreat, that is responsible for the differential denudation across the region. It is proposed that numerical model experiments, which reflect the observational insights at the large scale, may identify the smaller‐scale controls on escarpment development if the model and natural systems are analogous. Four numerical experiments are presented in which the roles of antecedent topography, resistant substrate, climate change, and lowering the baselevel of the interior catchment are investigated for an initially high elevation margin bordered by an escarpment. The model results suggest several styles of landscape evolution that are compatible with the observations. Escarpments may retreat in a regular manner, but they also degrade and are destroyed, only to reform at the drainage divide between exterior and interior catchments.

Cainozoic heritage in the modern landscape near Bungonia, southern New South Wales

SUMMARY The regional topography of much of the New South Wales Southern Highlands was long attributed to Quaternary erosion, but it has been recently demonstrated that the region was, in fact, well developed by the Eocene. The hillsides at Inverary Park are mantled by the Late‐Eocene Reevesdale Basalt, thus indicating the extent of landscape development by the mid‐Tertiary. Pre‐, intra‐, and post‐basaltic alluvial and lacustrine sediments are compared with the current extent of the basalt, clearly demonstrating the age of this landscape and the paucity of modification since the Late Eocene. Stratigraphic techniques, U/Th, TL and 14C dating aid reconstruction of much of the Cainozoic history of Inverary Park. Major changes in sediment type and source have long been common, but Late Quaternary changes do not correlate well with similar observations elsewhere, suggesting that changes in hydrologic regime, notably climate change, are not necessarily responsible for changes in the stratigraphic record. This landscape development and preservation is also at odds with most models of landscape development.