Size Of Land Holdings Research Articles

Agricultural Land Rental Arrangements in Nepal: Incidence, Forms, Determinants, and the Current Legal Provisions

Given the fragmented and small size of land holdings in Nepal, the viability of crop production is a pressing concern. Rental or tenancy arrangements, which equalise marginal returns from factors of production across households, offer a solution to this viability crisis. In this context, our study is unique as it not only examines the incidence and forms of tenancy, but also identifies the determinants of the land leasing decision of rural households, and discusses their implications for agrarian development in Nepal. Drawing on primary survey data from 350 households in six districts of plains and hills, we provide evidence of the widespread prevalence of informal tenancy in Nepal. Despite locational variations explained by the location-specific cropping patterns, sharecropping and fixed-rent are found to be the primary forms of tenancy contracts. A Tobit regression analysis identifies certain household level, farm level, and location-specific characteristics as important factors influencing land leasing decisions. Our analysis suggests that the land supply in the land lease market may increase in the future, and therefore, it is pertinent to examine the legal provisions that govern the use of such lands. Hence, we also examine the legal provisions concerning tenancy relations.

Assessing Woody Species Diversity in Dembecha District, Northwestern Ethiopia: Agroecological and Landholding Perspectives

The cultivation of perennial woody species in Ethiopia’s agricultural landscape is recognized for its contributions to biodiversity conservation and soil fertility. This research aimed to assess the diversity of woody species in the agricultural landscape of Dembecha district, located in northwestern Ethiopia. Three kebeles, representing distinct agroecologies (highland, midland, and lowland), were selected for the study. A total of 30 households, with 10 randomly chosen from each agroecology, participated in the inventory of woody species. The height of the woody species was gauged using a clinometer, and the diameter at breast height (DBH) of species with a diameter exceeding 5cm was measured using a diameter tape. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 21 was employed to compare means across the study kebeles and different landholding sizes. The inventory results revealed the presence of 45 woody species in the study area, with 25 species recorded in both the highland and midland areas, and 18 in the lowland areas. The assessment of species diversity, using the Shannon diversity index, showed significant variation across agroecologies, ranging from 1.1 in the lowland to 2.00 in the midland (p<0.05). Similarly, species diversity varied significantly among different landholding sizes, particularly between small landholding size (0.5-1.5ha) and medium (1.51-2.5ha) and large landholding size (>2.51ha) (p<0.05). The Shannon diversity index ranged from 1.2 for small landholding size to 1.72 for large landholding size. Notably, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Croton macrostachyus emerged as the most abundant species recorded in the study.

Economic Analysis of Major Crops in Jammu Division of Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir, India

This micro-economic study focuses on the cost and returns analysis for major crops (wheat, paddy, and maize) in the districts of Jammu, Kathua, and Samba in the Jammu division. Conducted at SKUAST, Jammu during 2023, the study utilized a multistage random sampling method to achieve its objectives. Data was collected from 360 sample farmers, covering aspects such as land-holding size, costs, and return structures. The costs associated with crop cultivation varied pointedly across the districts, with Samba incurring ₹14272.57 for Cost A2 and ₹33023.58 for Cost C3 which was the highest of overall costs. Jammu had the highest main-product yield of 25.22 quintals and by-product yield of 32.70 quintals. Jammu also recorded the highest fixed costs (₹13488.30) whereas the highest total cost was in Samba with ₹30021.43. Gross returns were highest in Jammu with ₹68303.22, resulting in net returns of ₹38740.29. Jammu also had the highest benefit-cost ratio of 1:2.30, as well as the highest family labor income and farm business income (₹41755.29 and ₹43060.92, respectively). The rental value of owned land (Cost B2) suggestively impacted final costs, and Jammu district emerged as the most economically favorable for major crop cultivation. Overall, it depicted the possible profitability from cultivation of major crops like wheat, paddy and maize, that may encourage the farming community specially the youngsters to choose agriculture over private sectors, which would ultimately contribute to meet the state demand as well as contribution to SGDP.

Smallholder farmers’ willingness to pay for improved irrigation water use: the case of Menz Mama Midir Woreda in North Shewa Zone of Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT The water use practices in Menz Mama Midir woreda are very traditional and inefficient. To lessen this problem, water pricing (valuation) has been considered to be a promising tool. This study, therefore, examined smallholder farmers' willingness to pay and determinants affecting their decisions to pay for improved irrigation water use in Menz Mama woreda, North Shewa zone, Amhara national regional state of Ethiopia. Cross-sectional data collected from 215 randomly sampled irrigation beneficiaries were used for analysis. The mean WTP from double bounded dichotomous elicitation method ranges from 164.027 Birr (4.17 USD) to 221.059 Birr (5.62 USD) per year per hectare of irrigable land. The result from the seemingly unrelated bivariate probit model estimation revealed that the sex of the household head, total annual farm income, size of irrigable landholdings of the household, frequency of extension contacts, amount of credit, and dissatisfaction with the existing irrigation service positively and significantly influenced farmers' WTP decisions. In contrast, off-farm income and bid values were negatively related to WTP decisions. Therefore, the aforementioned factors affecting farmers' decisions to pay should be taken into consideration when constructing irrigation schemes in the study area and areas with similar economic and socio-cultural settings.

Exploring popular information sources and determinants of farmers’ access to agricultural extension services in the Indo-Gangetic plains

A study was undertaken to analyse farmers’ access to various agricultural extension service sources, their preferences and to delineate underlying determinants for their access. The study used NSSO 77th survey dataset of 14,782 households of IGP states (Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal). Farmers’ preferences varied, with private agencies—particularly input dealers—emerging as the top choice, followed by traditional mass media channels and the public extension system. Utility of Cooperative model, and farmer-based organizations have not yet been fully explored for information needs. The inputs (seeds, fertilizers, plant protection) were the most sought-after information. However, in an era of changing needs, farmers should strive to acquire additional information on aspects such as marketing, climate change, and post-harvest functions. The type of information sought by the farmers, influences their preferred sources of extension services. Irrespective of the source, the degree of access diminishes with the decreasing landholding. Among the five IGP states, Haryana emerged as the champion of information access for farmers, while Bihar lagged. Multivariate probit analysis reported that the likelihood of access to agricultural information sources was positively influenced by age, gender, education, size of operational landholding, irrigated area, and sale of produce at MSP. The study suggests making the extension services for small and socio-economically marginalized farmers more inclusive. Inclusiveness of extension services is essential for sustainability because it ensures that all farmers, regardless of their landholding, gender, age, caste, etc., have access to knowledge and resources they need to adopt improved agricultural practices and thus, secure prosperous livelihoods.

Determinants of household dependency on Buxa Tiger Reserve in India for fuelwood collection and livestock grazing

The present study examined the extent and pattern of households' dependency on forest for fuelwood and livestock grazing and identifies, analyzed the key factors that determined the level of households' dependency and access to forest resources, and explored the role of ecotourism development in reducing the same. The study used primary data collected randomly from 300 households residing in the Buxa Tiger Reserve (BTR). The study found that the majority of households (88%) engaged in fuelwood collection, and the annual average fuelwood collection was estimated to be 1,502.8 kg. About 56.67% of households were found to be engaged in grazing activities, and on average, 2.57 adult cattle units were brought inside the forest for grazing. The regression results suggested that the education of the household head, household income, liquefied petroleum gas availability, participation in ecotourism, livestock availability, social background (caste), and the number of household labour were the key determinants of household dependency on fuelwood, while the age of the household head, family size, land holding size, participation in ecotourism, and social background (caste) significantly influenced the level of household grazing dependency on the BTR. Most households were affected due to restrictions levied on access to forest resources. Income from forest, fuelwood collection, agricultural landholding size, household dependency ratio, and forest department awareness levels were the key determinants of households affected by protected area (PA) restrictions. Household participation in ecotourism was found to be effective in reducing household dependency on BTR, but it did not adequately alleviate the impact of PA restrictions on their livelihoods. Hence, sustainable ecotourism, along with the provision of smokeless stoves and renewable energy, such as solar, could go a long way in reducing pressure on the BTR and sustainable management of the reserve.

Estimating Marketing Efficiency of Organic Farmers: Evidence from Districts of West Bengal, India

The growing organic food market offers considerable trading opportunities for organic farmers in India. In this context, this article intends to find out whether the organic farmers are exploring these marketing opportunities in the three districts (namely, Purulia, Purba Bardhaman and Nadia) of West Bengal. Farm-level marketing efficiency is measured in a framework of data envelopment analysis. Evidence reveals that farmers’ marketing activities determine the level of marketing efficiency. Results show that organic farmers in Nadia district are relatively marketing efficient in comparison to the farmers in Purulia and Purba Bardhaman districts. Moreover, an attempt has been made to identify the determinants of marketing efficiency. The result shows that marketing efficiency is affected by the economic status, level of education, years of farming experience, size of landholding of the farmer household and the type of marketing arrangement.

A Comprehensive Assessment of Apple Production in Jumla District, Nepal: Status, Economics, Marketing and Challenges

Apple production is a vital sector of agriculture in Nepal, significantly impacting local livelihoods and the regional economy. This study, conducted in Jumla District, Nepal, from January to July 2022, aims to comprehensively assess apple production, including its existing conditions, economic implications, marketing and challenges. The research hypothesizes that while apple production in Jumla District contributes significantly to the local economy, it faces challenges related to pest and disease management, marketing, and adoption of modern practices. Using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), descriptive statistics were computed based on data collected from a sample of 80 respondents selected through simple random sampling. The result revealed that agriculture constituted the primary source of income for 73.75% of the population, with an average landholding size of 0.3428 ha and an apple-growing land area of 0.3164 ha. Income from apple production, along with vegetables and fruits, was a major income source. The average annual sales of apple production were 7.291 t/ha. Labor costs accounted for 45.67% of the total cost of apple production, with an average total production cost of NPR 238,097.2 and average gross returns of NPR 485,500. Apple productivity was 9.71 t/ha, demonstrating its economic viability with net returns of NPR 247,402.80 per ha and benefit cost ratio of 2.039. However, the study found that farm produce only sufficed for 6-9 months, with pest and disease incidence and marketing issues as major challenges. Interventions should address pest and disease management, marketing strategies, and modern practices adoption to enhance sustainable and profitable apple production in Jumla. Efforts to extend farm produce sufficiency should also be explored, highlighting apple production's potential and the need for targeted support to overcome challenges and foster sector development.

COFFEE VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS: A STUDY OF ARAKU AND PADERU REGIONS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

This study investigates the factors influencing coffee farmers' decisions regarding their membership in Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) and their selling patterns based on landholding size. Using chi-square tests, the researcher analyses the relationship between income groups and FPO membership and the associations between landholding sizes and the selling channels and buyers for coffee produce. The findings reveal no statistically strong correlation between levels of income and FPO membership, implying that farmers' actions may be influenced by other variables to join FPOs. In contrast, a robust correlation was found between landholding size and both the market channels utilized for selling produce and the choice of buyers. Smaller farmers typically favored selling to village aggregators and local traders, while larger landholders tended to engage with FPOs and contract buyers. These insights highlight the importance of considering landholding size in understanding market behavior among coffee farmers and encourage further investigation into the underlying factors influencing selling patterns.

PROFILE AND MOTIVES OF WOMAN MEMBERS TO JOIN SHGS

The study conducted in Gujarat’s Chhotaudepur district, 180 women who were members of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) were surveyed. The results show that 45.00 per cent of the women were in the middle age group, with 32.22 per cent having a secondary level of education. The majority (82.25 per cent) were engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, and 83.33 per cent were married. About 49.45 per cent had low levels of experience, and most families (60.00 per cent) had 5 to 8 members. 68.33 per cent of the women had marginal landholding size up to 1.00 hectare, and 62.80 per cent had annual incomes below ₹50,000/-. Moreover, 76.12 per cent of respondents belonged to one organization, and 40.00 per cent had access to fair market facilities. Mass media exposure was low, with 70.55 per cent having very little exposure, and 39.45 per cent had low participation in extension activities. A significant percentage of respondents (ranging from 56.11 to 73.33) did not have the opportunity to attend training sessions of various durations. Family support was high for 33.35 per cent of the respondents, and 48.90 per cent had a positive attitude towards SHGs. The primary reason for joining SHGs, as reported by 93.33 per cent of the respondents, was to supplement their income, indicating the importance of economic benefits in motivating women to join SHGs.

Socioeconomic Drivers of Land Use and Land Cover Change in Western Ethiopia

A variety of socioeconomic and environmental drivers have contributed to changes in LULC around the world in recent years. This study examines the socioeconomic drivers that accelerated LULC in western Ethiopia. The data were generated from terrestrial satellite images primary and secondary sources. Primary data sources include household surveys, field observations, group discussions, interviews, key informants, and interpreting remote sensing data. Secondary data were reviewed mainly from relevant literature both published and unpublished materials. Landsat images were classified using the supervised classification technique and maximum likelihood classifier using arc GIS 10.3 to create LULC maps of the study area. Accuracy score and kappa coefficient were used to confirm the accuracy of the classified LULC, and agricultural land, settlement, bare land, forest land, and water body were the main LULC classes in the district. Forest cover in three decades (1990–2020) in the study area decreased from 12.1% in 1990 to 2.6% in 2020. The data were also analyzed using a descriptive model, Pearson correlation, and binary logistic regression. The independent variables (age and gender) show a Pearson’s positive correlation with the drivers of LULC dynamics; that is, as these independent variables increase, the drivers of LULC dynamics also increase, whereas educational status and land holding size show a negative correlation. This shows that the drivers of the anthropogenic forces of LULC dynamics decreased as the number of educated populations and the size of land holdings increased, and vice versa. Then, the binary logistic regression model examined the relationship between the dependent and the major socioeconomic (independent) variables. Logistic regression was performed to determine how independent variables and the drivers of LULC (natural forces or anthropogenic forces) change and the model was statistically significant (x2 = 23.971, df = 5, P < 0.001). The model explained 13.9% (Nagelkerke R2) of the variance in the drivers of LULC dynamics and correctly classified 66.1% of the cases. The study found that age, gender, and educational status largely determine the drivers of LULC dynamics and have the greatest chance of determining the anthropogenic forces. Therefore, relevant stakeholders should take integrated measures to reduce the drivers of LULC dynamics through landscape restoration.

A LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF MULTIDIMENSIONAL POVERTY: A CASE STUDY OF AIZAWL DISTRICT OF MIZORAM, INDIA

In this paper, we examine poverty in the state of Mizoram, India by taking the case of Aizawl district based on the method of Alkire-Foster counting approach. We also assess the determinants of such poverty using binary logistic regression model by considering household characteristics such as dependency ratio, age, education of the household head, household size and size of agricultural landholdings as explanatory variables. We found that 28.4 percent of the population is MPI poor (i.e. headcount ratio) with a 38.2 percent intensity of poverty (A). The overall MPI in the study area is 0.10. The findings of the study are very close to the findings of Alkire et.al (2015), who estimated the headcount ratio, intensity of poverty, and MPI to be 30.8 percent, 45.1 percent, and 0.139 respectively based on the National Family Health Survey-3 (NFHS-3). The estimated logistic regression also showed that the household size, dependency ratio, age of the household head, and education level of the household head were significant determinants of poverty in the study area. The findings of this study agree with those of previous studies such as Datt (1998) Al-Saleh (2000), Ajakaiye and Adeyeye, (2002), Osowole, Asif (2007), Babu, & Sanyal (2009), etc. However, the size of agricultural landholdings is not a significant determinant of multidimensional poverty in the study area, which is contrary to the findings of Hashmi, et.al. (2008) and Babu, et.al. (2019). KEYWORDS: Multidimensional Poverty, Alkire-Foster Method, Determinants of Poverty, Binary Logistic Regression.

Resource-use management of castor (Ricinus communis L.) growers in Andhra Pradesh

A study was conducted to assess the resource-use management (RUM) behaviour of castor growers in Mahabubnagar district of Andhra Pradesh with 120 randomly selected castor growers through a pre-standardized scale. It was found that the respondents with large size of land holdings had medium to high level of RUM behaviour, while respondents with small and medium size of land holdings had low to medium level. Overall, there was low to medium level of RUM behaviour as exhibited by the castor growers. The respondents had low to medium level of management towards land, cropping system, seed, soil-moisture and nutrients, while medium to high level of management towards weeds, pests, diseases and irrigation. Seed, soil-moisture and nutrient were the primary indicators contributed towards both productivity and profitability of castor cultivation. Strategies for efficient management of these indicators are to be popularized through need-based extension efforts to improve the productivity and profitability of castor under rainfed conditions of Andhra Pradesh.

Factors affecting the use of improved chickpea seed among smallholder farmers in <em>Gondar Zuria Woreda</em>, Ethiopia

Purpose: The use of improved seeds is one of the most important factors among the others to increase the production and productivity of crops. However, the use of improved chickpea seeds by smallholder farmers remains low. These resulted in lower productivity of chickpea by smallholder farmers. The factors contributing to the low rate of use of improved chickpea seed in the study area are to be analyzed. Research Method: To achieve the objective of the study, a multi-stage sampling technique was employed. The sample size was determined using the Yamane formula, and 140 sampled households were randomly selected. A proportionate sample of the population was used to determine the size of sample from each kebele . These data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. Findings: The results revealed that 55.71% of respondents are users of improved chickpea seeds. The logistic regression result shows that the use of improved chickpea seed by smallholder farmers is determined by the availability and price of improved seeds, size of land holdings, participation in a field visit, frequency of extension service, proximity to the market, and attractiveness of the market price. The marginal effect result indicates that a unit change in access to improved seeds, participation in a field visit, land size, and seed cost increases the probability of using improved chickpea seed by 40.76%, 11.86%, 11.26%, and 4.27% respectively, among others. Research Limitations: The study was conducted in one geographical area using cross-sectional data. This finding does not show the trends of adoption in the study area or its implications in different parts of the region. Originality/Value: The findings of the study are novel and relatively new to the given geographical area. This study reported specific and new findings on factors that affect the use of improved chickpea seeds in the study area. The findings are important as a source of information for decision-makers, development practitioners, and researchers.

Women’s land ownership in India: Evidence from digital land records

Women play critical roles in agricultural operations in many developing countries, yet they have limited ownership and de facto control over agricultural lands. Literature shows that insecure land rights constrain women’s economic prospects and make them vulnerable to poverty and violence. Despite initiating women-friendly amendments in existing polices in India, the situation has remained unresponsive. Clearly, the existing patriarchal mind-set, cultural and social ethos have imposed restrictions on women land ownership. For deriving important policy pointers, ground realities on land distribution and existing iniquities is required which is lacking in available databases. In this context, the paper aims to reinforce with evidence the bias against women in land rights at different stages so that policy can be rethought in new ways. The analysis is based on sex-disaggregated data extracted from nearly 16,000 original digital copies of land records for 12 States/Union Territories (UTs) in rural India, a first of its kind of exercise. Our results show that just having a title won’t resolve the bigger challenge of different levels of inequities that women still face when they own the land in terms of limited access to single land titles, lower shares, smaller size and inferior quality of land holdings. We also analyse the extent to which the States laws and provisions related to women land rights have controlled these biases, for which State-wise laws/ provisions were reviewed. We find mixed impacts of these provisions with significant variations across States, the reasons being lack of proper implementation and prevailing social attitudes/ customs. Finally, while emphasising the need to start rethinking and reinforcing these laws and provisions in a new way, the paper suggests feasible steps in this direction.

Good life in the Amazon? A critical reflection on the standard of living of cocoa and cattle-based smallholders in Pará, Brazil

The balance between environment and economic stability is key to sustainable rural development. This is particularly true in the agricultural frontier areas along the Transamazon Highway and Southern Pará in the Brazilian Amazon, where thousands of migrant families have settled in the forests over the past 50 years in search of a better life. To better understand the extent to which sustainable development is possible in such a context, this study examined the standard of living that smallholders who grow cocoa can achieve compared to those who raise cattle, and what this means for forest conservation. An analysis of 95 households revealed that both livelihood strategies may generate an acceptable standard of living despite significant logistical and environmental challenges. This was observed even more so for families who combined both production systems. The availability of technology and the size of landholdings had the greatest impact on the standard of living expressed in income and housing conditions. The majority of the analyzed households, especially those involved in cattle ranching, converted their forests for economic success. The pure cocoa farmers behaved differently, but also cleared large areas of forest and may continue to do so. The findings suggest that achieving sustainable local development in Amazonian agricultural frontiers requires large and well-coordinated investments by competent public and private actors not only in building and optimizing sustainable production systems such as cocoa agroforestry but also in significantly improving social rural infrastructure.

AN ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MANGO GROWERS

Socio-personal characteristics of the respondents viz- age, education, farm experience, social participation, land holding, annual income, yield index, extension contact, mass media exposure, innovativeness, scientific orientation, risk orientation, achievement motivation, economic motivation was studied. A multistage, purposive and random sampling technique was selected for the study. To study the profile of mango growers about rejuvenation technology of Gir Somnath district of Gujarat, a study with ex post facto research design was conducted in four talukas named Talala, Kodinar, Una and Sutrapada of Gir Somnath district. The interview schedule was prepared and pre-tested to collect the data. Total 120 respondents were surveyed through personal interview technique. It was revealed that 51.67 per cent of respondents belonged to middle age group, about 41.67 per cent of respondents belonged to middle or secondary school level of education and 60.00 per cent had medium farm experience. Majority (70.83 per cent) of the respondents were under the category of medium social participation, 40.84 per cent had found with medium size of landholding and about 37.50 per cent had medium level of annual income and 57.50 per cent had medium level of yield index. 54.17 per cent belonged to medium extension contact, 60.83 per cent had medium mass media exposure, 64.17 per cent had medium level of innovativeness, more than half (56.67 per cent) of the respondents had medium level of scientific orientation, further 58.33 per cent had medium level of risk orientation. Nearly half (49.17 per cent) of the respondents had medium level of achievement motivation, slightly more than half (52.50 per cent) had medium level of economic motivation.

Determinants of Female Workforce Participation in Agriculture of Uttar Pradesh, India

Most of the rural female workforce is engaged in the agriculture sector and unequally distributed in various operations. The gender inequality in workforce participation in agriculture sector is easily visible. There is a high participation of women in some specific tasks and some others are recognized as male dominated work. According to NSSO 68th round data (2012) , the participation of women in various agricultural activities is only 17% in Uttar Pradesh, India. The diverse socio-economic status of rural Uttar Pradesh affects participation in different ways. The female participation as agricultural laborer is high in Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes and it is comparatively low in General and Other Backward Caste (OBC). Participation ratio is having an increasing trend from 15-29 to 30-44 years age groups, and later it is having a declining trend to older age groups. Female participation is increasing from small to medium-sized households, after which it has declined sharply here. Almost half (46%) of the women participation in agricultural is coming from households which derive at least half of their income from own farming. Education level and female participation are inversely associated. Female participation is found highest in families with marginal size of land holdings (74.61%), followed by small land holdings (12.66%) and medium land holdings. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been used to identify the key determinants of female participation in various operations. It is found that household type, education level and size of land are the most important among many other factors. This study is useful for offering suggestions to make the participation of women easier and more effective.

Enset Production System Diversity across the Southern Ethiopian Highlands

Enset is a staple crop of the southern Ethiopian highlands. Small-holder farmers cultivate enset as part of mixed subsistence farming systems, in which enset provides substantial food security services. While its cultivation is unique to this region, enset production systems take on many forms, varying with environmental and agronomic conditions, crop diversity and (co-)staples produced, the importance of enset for the household, and socio-economic and cultural differences. Through extensive interviews with 375 households covering 20 communities, along an altitudinal range of 1500 to 3000 masl across the main enset-producing belt, the diversity in enset production systems was assessed. We show that the size of enset-producing land holdings and the overall cultivated farmland decreased with altitude. The economic status of households however drives the proportion of land allocated to enset, with relatively more land (45%) allocated to the cultivation of enset in poorer households compared to medium (38%) and to richer (23%) households. The food crop diversity, with an average of 6.4 different food crop species on a farm (ranging from 2 to 15 crops), did not vary with the wealth status of the households or with altitude. Enset-derived food items were a main component of multiple daily meals for most households, complemented with other crops produced on the farm. Supplemental food purchases mainly included meat and bread products, although the purchasing power of enset-growing households is predominantly low. The co-staples grown varied with altitude, according to crop productive cultivation boundaries. Maize was an important co-staple observed across the entire investigated altitudinal range. At the mid to upper altitudes, wheat and barley often supplemented or substituted maize as the main cereal crop, while at the mid to lower altitudes, teff was produced in addition to maize. Coffee was the main cash crop grown up to altitudes of 2300 m. Root and tuber crops, and legumes had a more moderate importance in these systems. At lower altitudes, yam, sweet potato and taro were the main roots and tubers produced, which shifted to Irish potatoes at the mid to high altitudes. The importance of beans was higher in several high-altitude kebeles. The food crop diversity, combined with livestock rearing are key for the self-reliance of the small-holder subsistence farms. The need for increased enset cultivation was highlighted by the farmers to ensure food availability and food security with population growth. On the other hand, enset cultivation was mainly threatened by Xanthomonas wilt.

Assessment of on farm agrobiodiversity and its role in food sufficiency in mid hill, Nepal

A survey was conducted in the agricultural farms in Dhulikhel Municipality, mid-hill, Kavre, Nepal aiming at assessing the status of agrobiodiversity with the purpose of understanding its role in food security taking altogether 133 farming households scattered in several settlements with lowland, upland, and home garden being the general agricultural land use systems. Biodiversity index: Shannon-Wiener Index was used to assess diversity of plant. The main purpose was to assess the farm agrobiodiversity and to find out whether biodiversity level has a direct link to household food self-sufficiency. For descriptive analysis frequency, percentage, mean and standard errors were used. In the case of inferential statistics independent sample t - test and binary logistic was used to find the odd ratio of practicing home garden. The result showed that the average landholding size was 0.66 ha/household with 0.37 ha, 0.3 ha, and 0.06 ha being upland, low land, and home garden, respectively. A total of 136 plant species were documented out of which 74 were the effective number of species in the study area. Among the used plants, fodder shared 27% of the total plant diversity followed by fruit (21%), vegetable (19%), medicinal plants (8%), pulses (8%), spices (7%), oilseeds (5%) and cereals (5%). Similarly, the mean livestock unit (LSU) was 2.65. The overall Shannon-Wiener Index was 4.30 indicating high diversity of species and 87.7% of the species were evenly distributed. The Index was higher for vegetable (3.11) followed by fruits (2.9) and fodder (2.85). Higher diversity was found in fodder trees in lowlands whereas vegetable species were more diverse in upland and home garden. Similarly, the Index was 4.29 in the upland whereas it was 4.078 in the home garden followed by 3.13 in the lowland. The evenness was 0.899, 0.87, and 0.74 in upland, home garden and lowland, respectively. Higher species diversity revealed that the site was rich in agrobiodiversity. A significant positive correlation (0.22) was observed between Shannon-Wiener Index and farming years. Similarly, positive correlation (0.33) was found between an increase in the level of agrobiodiversity and food self-sufficiency. The result demonstrated that increasing crop diversity increases the household’s ability towards food sufficiency implying the need for the formulation and implementation of efficient policy to conserve the agrobiodiversity at municipality as well as national levels.