Land Use Policy Changes Research Articles

Guidelines and Incentives for Conservation Development in Local Land‐Use Regulations

Effective conservation of biological diversity on private lands will require changes in land-use policy and development practice. Conservation development (CD) is an alternative form of residential development in which homes are built on smaller lots and clustered together and the remainder of the property is permanently protected for conservation purposes. We assessed the degree to which CD is permitted and encouraged by local land-use regulations in 414 counties in the western United States. Thirty-two percent of local planning jurisdictions have adopted CD ordinances, mostly within the past 10 years. CD ordinances were adopted in counties with human population densities that were 3.0 times greater and in counties with 2.5 times more land use at urban, suburban, and exurban densities than counties without CD ordinances. Despite strong economic incentives for CD (e.g., density bonuses, which allow for a mean of 66% more homes to be built per subdivision area), several issues may limit the effectiveness of CD for biological diversity conservation. Although most CD ordinances required a greater proportion of the site area be protected than in a typical residential development, just 13% (n = 17) of the ordinances required an ecological site analysis to identify and map features that should be protected. Few CD ordinances provided guidelines regarding the design and configuration of the protected lands, including specifying a minimum size for protected land parcels or encouraging contiguity with other protected lands within or near to the site. Eight percent (n =11) of CD ordinances encouraged consultation with a biological expert or compliance with a conservation plan. We recommend that conservation scientists help to improve the effectiveness of CD by educating planning staff and government officials regarding biological diversity conservation, volunteering for their local planning boards, or consulting on development reviews.

Measuring the impacts of local land-use policies on vehicle miles of travel: The case of the first big-box store in Davis, California

Concerns over climate change have brought new impetus to the goal of reducing vehicle travel through land-use policy. To determine the degree to which land-use policies are effective in reducing vehicle travel, studies are needed that measure and compare vehicle travel both before and after a land-use policy change. The opening of the first big-box retail store in Davis, California, represented a major change in the retail landscape and an unusual opportunity to study its effect on shopping travel. Surveys of residents' shopping behavior conducted before and after the opening of the store revealed a significant shift in where people shopped and a measurable reduction in overall vehicle miles traveled (VMT) for shopping. Although the observed change in VMT is specific to the Davis context, the findings support the general proposition that bringing retail destinations closer to residences could help reduce vehicle travel, particularly where the comparable alternatives for the newly introduced store are far away. The study also offers important insights into the challenges of conducting before-and-after studies of the impact of local land-use changes.

Impacts of internal and external policies on land change in Uruguay, 2001–2009

SUMMARYPolicies play a pivotal role in determining land change. Uruguay has been subject to first a rise and then decline in plantations of exotic trees as a result of internal Uruguayan government policies, and a recent substantial increase in soybean cultivation that may be attributed to Argentinean policies. To properly assess the relationship between land change and changes in land-use policies, vegetation change for Uruguay from 2001 to 2009 was mapped using MODIS imagery. Between 2001 and 2009, the area covered by exotic tree plantations declined by 1435 km2, and 34 681 km2of herbaceous cover was converted to agricultural cover, mainly soybean cultivation. Uruguay and Argentina implemented land-use policy changes following the 2002 economic collapse. Rapid increase in exotic tree plantations, mainly in the 1990s, may have been stimulated by Uruguayan government incentives, while their recent decline coincides with the subsequent elimination of these incentives. The rapid increase in soybean production may be largely attributed to recent tax regimes in Argentina and lack of export tax in Uruguay combining to provide a favourable financial climate for Uruguayan soybean cultivation. Soybean cultivation is predicted to continue to expand in Uruguay, while exotic tree plantations should also increase in importance owing to the recent establishment of the world's largest pulp mill.

Can Urban Growth Management Work in an Era of Political and Economic Change?

Problem: Urban growth management policy employs a range of tools to restrain urban sprawl, promote efficient land use, and preserve open space. Yet the efficacy of such policy is widely debated and challenged, necessitating reliable empirical evidence from case studies assessing the historical success (or failure) of such policy. Purpose: We review Israeli national growth management policy over a 36-year period, recording long-term land development trends in order to assess the efficacy of policy. Methods: We integrate a historical analysis of qualitative policy data and quantitative performance indicators of urban spatial development for a selected region of the country. We use a suite of spatial variables indicating amount, distribution, and configuration of built space along with other sprawl-relevant statistical data. Results and conclusions: In the 1970s and 1980s, open space was preserved largely due to agricultural preservation policy, despite demographic and economic growth. During the 1990s, the initiation of growth management policy coincided with a profound proliferation of development and population movement to low-density suburbs. While statistical indicators from the past several years are equivocal, they suggest that policy is encouraging higher-density development and slowing the loss of open space. Takeaway for practice: Urban growth management policy and its impact must be considered within the historical context in which it was implemented. Changes in land use policy in Israel reflect socioeconomic and political changes; when policy did not adapt to changes in society, the results were undesirable. Today, planning tools (e.g., minimum density limits, population size thresholds, urban growth boundaries, and land use fabrics) strike a balance between top-down planning objectives and bottom-up development pressures. The use of these tools within a statutory, national-level plan helps ensure consistency of implementation across regions.

Forest resource use and perception of farmers on conservation of a usufruct forest (Soppinabetta) of Western Ghats, India

The negative impact of anthropogenic activity on tropical forests is well documented, but the underlying factors, including socioeconomic conditions, government policy, and agricultural practices, that influence forest degradation in developing countries are poorly understood. For centuries, Soppinabetta forests (SBFs) in the Western Ghats of India have provided essential habitat for wildlife and vital organic resources (leaf litter, green foliage) for the cultivation of betel nut palms ( Areca catechu) and rice paddy ( Oryza sativa). Historically, betel nut farmers carefully managed resource extraction in SBFs, but recent changes in land use policy allow for unmitigated resource extraction by site dwellers, which may imperil the traditional sustainable management of SBFs. Site dwellers live on government allotted sites and primarily derive their income through the sale of forest-based products. We used SBFs as a model system to investigate the factors governing: (i) forest resource extraction, (ii) the effect of changing agricultural practices on the rate of resource extraction, and (iii) farmers’ perception of SBFs conservation in response to changes in governmental land use policy. Results from surveys of 90 households (57 farmers and 33 site-dwellers) and the forest department indicate individual farmers collected an average of 31.09 (range 0–125) metric tons of leaf litter and 19.11 metric tons (range 0–120) of green foliage per year. Organic resource harvesting by farmers was positively correlated with the size of betel nut plantations, size of SBFs, and number of livestock owned per household. Betel nut plantations require six times more compost than food grains cultivated in field paddies. In past one decade, 33% of field paddies have been converted into betel nut plantations, increasing the strain on SBFs for forest resources. Farmers believe that when they lose provisional ownership of SBFs, site dwellers unsustainably harvest resources and severely damage SBFs. We suggest that an inclusive, local-level, farmer-driven protection be implemented to preserve the SBF heritage system of Western Ghats.

Mapping human dimensions in marine spatial planning and management: An example from Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island

Abstract The Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island is a complex mosaic of human activities and environmental features and while spatial distributions of physical, chemical, and biological elements are well documented in the Bay, there are limited data on spatial distributions of human activities. In this study, human uses of coastal waters in the upper Narragansett Bay are examined using an approach for characterizing and analyzing fine scale spatial and temporal data on human activities. Shipboard transect surveys of active water activities were conducted in the upper Bay on 50 days during the summer months of 2006–2007. The composition and configuration of different vessel types (recreational motor, recreational sail, row boat, commercial fishing, industrial, service, and official) were analyzed, and the impacts of proposed changes in land use policies and wastewater treatment technologies were investigated. Results indicated that recreational boaters comprised almost two-thirds of the upper Bay's users and used over one-half of the study area. Industrial activity was concentrated near Providence where RI's main port is located, and there was an active commercial fishery in the southern portion of the study area. Conditions like increasing cloud cover, weekend days, and the July 4th holiday were related to increased recreational use, while the closure of an upper Bay beach to swimming was associated with fewer commercial fishing vessels and more official boats, recreational motor boats, and service vessels. Findings indicated that upper Bay waters near land converted from industrial zones to zones where residential housing or marinas are encouraged are likely to see a change in composition of vessels, with fewer industrial and official boats and more recreational motor boats, row boats, and service vessels. Enhanced wastewater treatment technologies and the resulting improvements in water quality are likely to make more waters in the upper Bay available to shellfish harvesting, spreading out existing fishing grounds and potential pressures on the ecosystem and on other users. By characterizing the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of human uses in the marine environment and analyzing how these uses relate to the complex human and natural systems in which they are embedded, this study and others like it can positively contribute to marine spatial planning and management efforts designed to achieve ecological, economic, and social objectives.

The Spatio-Temporal Dynamic Pattern of Rural Residential Land in China in the 1990s Using Landsat TM Images and GIS

Through interpreting Landsat TM images, this study analyzes the spatial distribution of rural settlements in China in 2000. It calculates rural residential land percentage for every 1-km(2) cell. The entire country is divided into 33 regions to investigate the spatio-temporal dynamic patterns of rural residential land during the 1990s. According to the remote sensing survey, the rural residential land increased by 7.88 x 10(5) ha in the 1990s. The increment of rural residential land was 0.55 million ha in 1990-1995 and 0.23 million ha in 1995-2000. In 1990-1995, rural residential land increased dramatically in the eastern regions such as the Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, and North China Plain, accounting for 80.80% of the national growth; the expansion in the western regions was much more moderate. In 1995-2000, the expansion of rural residential land in eastern regions slowed, accounting for only 58.54% of the increase at the national level, whereas the expansion in the western regions accelerated. Rapid rural residential development resulted from increasing home construction and the limited control on rural land. The great regional disparity reflected the regional economic development and land-use policy change. Our finding shows that nearly 60% of the rural residential area came from cropland.

Spatio-temporal Patterns and Driving Forces of Urban Land Expansion in China during the Economic Reform Era

Along with its economic reform, China has experienced a rapid urbanization. This study mapped urban land expansion in China using high-resolution Landsat Thematic Mapper and Enhanced Thematic Mapper data of 1989/1990, 1995/1996 and 1999/2000 and analyzed its expansion modes and the driving forces underlying this process during 1990-2000. Our results show that China's urban land increased by 817 thousand hectares, of which 80.8% occurred during 1990-1995 and 19.2% during 1995-2000. It was also found that China's urban expansion had high spatial and temporal differences, such as four expansion modes, concentric, leapfrog, linear and multi-nuclei, and their combinations coexisted and expanded urban land area in the second 5 y was much less than that of the first 5 y. Case studies of the 13 mega cities showed that urban expansion had been largely driven by demographic change, economic growth, and changes in land use policies and regulations.

Spatio-temporal Patterns and Driving Forces of Urban Land Expansion in China during the Economic Reform Era

Along with its economic reform, China has experienced a rapid urbanization. This study mapped urban land expansion in China using high-resolution Landsat Thematic Mapper and Enhanced Thematic Mapper data of 1989/1990, 1995/1996 and 1999/2000 and analyzed its expansion modes and the driving forces underlying this process during 1990-2000. Our results show that China's urban land increased by 817 thousand hectares, of which 80.8% occurred during 1990-1995 and 19.2% during 1995-2000. It was also found that China's urban expansion had high spatial and temporal differences, such as four expansion modes, concentric, leapfrog, linear and multi-nuclei, and their combinations coexisted and expanded urban land area in the second 5 y was much less than that of the first 5 y. Case studies of the 13 mega cities showed that urban expansion had been largely driven by demographic change, economic growth, and changes in land use policies and regulations.

Industrial development versus environmental conservation at local scale: a case study from southeastern Spain.

Local scale has an important role in environmental management. In Spain, rapid industrialization has occurred in the last three decades, leading to substantial changes in socioeconomic relations and resulting in significant environmental degradation. This paper describes the environmental status of the township of Sax (Alicante, in southeast Spain), which has passed from agriculture to industrial manufacturing in 50 years. The human population has grown exponentially during the second half of the 20th century, with a 91% increase from 1955 to 1995, coinciding with strong growth in manufacturing (factories increased fivefold in the period 1955-1976) and important changes in the working population and land use. Illegal rubbish dumps, water pollution, forest fires, erosion, and degradation of wildlife habitats are the main outcomes of these dramatic socioeconomic and demographic changes. The administration has focused on the control of water pollution and waste management, while nongovernmental organizations have concentrated on the prevention of forest fires and the development of environmental education programs. These measures are insufficient to manage current environmental degradation, and an environmental management plan for the study area is discussed. Increasing effort in waste management and industrial wastewater control, changes in land-use policy, and the creation of an advisory committee to increase public participation in decision-making have been identified as environmental target objectives for the coming years.

The politics of downtown development: dynamic political cultures in San Francisco and Washington, D.C.

Through an insightful comparison of effective protest in San Francisco and ineffective protest in Washington, D.C., Stephen McGovern examines how citizens - even those lacking financial resources - have sought to control their own urban environments. His analysis reveals that grassroots activists seeking broad changes in land-use policy are more likely to prevail if they can transform the local political culture through their own deliberate efforts.

Regional variation in the origin, extent and composition of Scottish Woodland

Summary Results from the Nature Conservancy Council's Inventory of Ancient Woodland show regional variations in the extent, origin and composition of Scottish woods and the degree to which they are recognized as important sites for nature conservation. Around 14.5% of Scotland is forested but not more than 2% of the land area is ancient woodland. Nearly half of the ancient area has been replanted, mainly with introduced conifers. Thus the area retaining ancient semi-natural woodland covers just 1 % of Scotland. Woodland within Sites of Special Scientific Interest or nature reserves covers 38,154 ha. The majority of this is ancient semi-natural woodland, but 68% of the total ancient semi-natural woodland area is not so protected. The value for nature conservation of many ancient sites has declined because of the extent of replanting and overgrazing. Recent beneficial changes in land use policies and practices need to be continued to prevent further decline in the nature conservation value of these important woods.

War Developments in Land Utilization and Policy in the Northern Plains

WO MAJOR changes in land use policy are required during Twar-time. The first is to accelerate the rate of flow of output from land and the second is to shift land uses from peace-time to wartime demands. These are not unrelated changes since a shift in the type of land use, such as from one crop to another, may accelerate the present flow of output. With respect to acceleration, land is one of the resources which is expendable during wartime, at least up to a certain limit, and the precarious base upon which the survival of our society now rests can justify the expenditure of certain resources currently which might otherwise be saved for the future. A new present-future balance (conservation rate) therefore is required. When we consider the possibilities of substituting land for men, even if this means expending certain of our land resources, surely the opportunity cost of that land is less than that of men if its fuller use will save lives at the front or will aid in winning the kind of peace later which will guarantee the manner of living desired in our democracy and in the world.