Land Survey Research Articles

Electronic Certificates in Indonesia: Enhancing Legal Certainty or Introducing New Challenges?

The Indonesian government is moving towards digital transformation in land administration by introducing electronic certificates (e-certificates) through the Regulation of the Minister of ATR/BPN Number 1 of 2021. This initiative aims to improve the security and legal certainty of land ownership, building upon existing programs like the Complete Systematic Land Registration Program (PTSL). This study used a normative legal research method to investigate the opportunities and challenges associated with implementing e-certificates in Indonesia. Primary legal sources, such as the Electronic Information and Transactions Law (UU ITE) and relevant ministerial regulations, were analyzed. Secondary data from legal journals, academic publications, and theses were also examined. The study revealed that e-certificates offer several advantages, such as increased efficiency in land administration, potential integration with blockchain technology, and improved land mapping and survey processes. However, challenges remain, including cybersecurity risks, limited technological infrastructure, and the digital literacy gap. Furthermore, the legal status of e-certificates as evidence in court, while recognized by the Ministry of ATR/BPN and UU ITE, requires further clarification within the Indonesian legal framework. This study concludes that e-certificates hold the potential to modernize land administration and enhance legal certainty in Indonesia, but successful implementation requires addressing critical challenges and ensuring comprehensive legal and regulatory clarity.

Captive swedes and the formation of mathematical cartography in Siberia (1711–1722)

After the defeat of Charles XII at Poltava, thousands of soldiers and officers of his army ended up in Russian captivity. Many of them were then exiled beyond the Urals, where they lived from 1711 to 1722. It is the Swedish officers that the beginnings of mathematical cartography of Siberia are associated with. The article analyzes the aspects of the work of the best known Swedish cartographer, Captain Philip Johan Tabbert (Philipp Johann von Strahlenberg) and provides information about other Swedes who engaged in cartography. At the early stage of the formation of mathematical cartography, an important problem was converting Russian linear measures into degrees. Various ratios used by both the Swedish captives and the Russian land surveyors are given. The methodology for longitude coordinates determination was studied based on the analysis of the maps and diary entries, made by Tabbert during D. G. Messerschmidt’s expedition. Indirect evidence of measurements of latitudinal coordinates, carried out by Swedish captives before the arrival of Russian surveyors in Siberia, has been collected. All of this enabled the analysis of mathematical basis of the two manuscript maps made by the Swedes in Siberia. It is concluded that the geographical maps, drawn in the Siberian captivity by Charles XII’s officers, continued the European tradition of mapping Siberia, being a separate stage in this process. What distinguished such maps was that their authors lived in the region they mapped. The Swedish captives became the first cartographers of Siberia, who created mathematically precise geographical maps with a grade grid, rather than hand-drawn, artistic maps. At the same time, Swedish officers’ efforts associated with creating geographical maps of Siberia had no impact on the development of Russian cartography. It was not the Swedes who broke the tradition of cartographic isography but, rather, the Russian graduates of the Maritime Academy who began working in Siberia in 1719.

CIrrMap250: annual maps of China's irrigated cropland from 2000 to 2020 developed through multisource data integration

Abstract. Accurate maps of irrigation extent and dynamics are crucial for studying food security and its far-reaching impacts on Earth systems and the environment. While several efforts have been made to map irrigated area in China, few have provided multiyear maps, incorporated national land surveys, addressed data discrepancies, and considered the fractional coverage of cropland within coarse-resolution pixels. Here, we addressed these important gaps and developed new annual maps of China's irrigated cropland from 2000 to 2020, named CIrrMap250 (China's irrigation map with a 250 m resolution). We harmonized irrigation statistics and surveys and reconciled them with remote sensing data. The refined estimates of irrigated area were then integrated with multiple remote sensing data (i.e. vegetation indices, hybrid cropland products, and paddy field maps) and an irrigation suitability map by means of a semi-automatic training approach. We evaluated our CIrrMap250 maps using ∼ 20 000 reference samples, high-resolution irrigation water withdrawal data, and existing local to nationwide maps. Our CIrrMap250 maps demonstrated an overall accuracy of 0.79–0.88 for the years 2000, 2010, and 2020 and outperformed currently available maps. The CIrrMap250-estimated irrigation area explained 50 %–60 % of the variance in irrigation water withdrawal across China. CIrrMap250 revealed that China's irrigation area increased by about 180 000 km2 (or 25 %) from 2000 to 2020, with the majority (61 %) occurring in the water-unsustainable regions facing severe to extreme water stress. Moreover, our product unveiled a noticeable northward shift of China's irrigation area, attributed to substantial expansions in irrigated cropland across northeastern and northwestern China. The accurate representation of irrigation extent in CIrrMap250 will greatly support hydrologic, agricultural, and climate studies in China, aiding in improved water and land resources management. CIrrMap250 can be accessed at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.24814293.v2 (Zhang et al., 2023a).

Surveying, mapping, and translating: how property rights were created in Shanghai, 1860–1900?

Abstract From 1860 to 1900, a modern system of property rights emerged in the International Settlement in Shanghai. This paper examines the largely overlooked process by which the Shanghai Municipal Council (SMC) brought about a system of well-functioning property rights through land surveys, mapping, and assessments. These methods worked hand-in-hand with road planning and construction in facilitating the expansion of the International Settlement to the Chinese-controlled area. Colonial officials, merchants, and Chinese intellectuals worked collectively and sometimes separately to generate knowledge about land and property by translating terms in the Chinese tradition. It argues that the efforts in institution-building and translation helped normalize the definition of property rights as things exclusively owned, strengthening the SMC's control over the land in Shanghai. These processes illuminate the relationship between empire-making and property rights by showing how property rights emerged and functioned in a semi-colonial context where multiple foreign authorities coexisted with the local government. The relatively secure system of property rights, which both foreign and Chinese merchants exploited, formed the foundation of a prosperous Shanghai in the twentieth century.

Circinus: An AI-Based Technical Description Plotting

Abstract. The digitization of maps poses a significant challenge for GIS operators and engineers, particularly in encoding bearings and distances into GIS software. This study, titled “Circinus: An AI-Based Technical Description Plotting,” represents a substantial advancement in the digitization process of land records. Leveraging artificial intelligence, this application enhances the efficiency of digitizing land survey maps, potentially surpassing the laborious manual input required for geographic information. By expediting the encoding process of scanned maps, the application enhances the accessibility and availability of digital land records. This advancement holds considerable benefits for effective land asset planning and improved financial operations, particularly benefiting prospective homebuyers and landowners. The tool offers streamlined encoding through its semi-automated features, facilitating ease of use. Additionally, its optimization features have the potential to significantly enhance the productivity of engineers and GIS operators involved in encoding scanned land survey maps.

The practice of protecting agricultural land in Jiangsu Province of China

The safeguarding of agricultural land is rooted in national land surveys and remote sensing data, which are enhanced by contemporary information technology. This framework facilitates the monitoring and regulation of unauthorized alterations in cultivated land usage. This paper aims to analyze land policies at the national, provincial, and local levels, investigate the cultivated land protection strategies implemented within the research region, where the policies have gained societal acceptance, and propose recommendations and countermeasures to enhance the development and utilization of land resources. The central issue of this study is to identify the challenges in achieving a balance between human activities and natural ecosystems. To address this issue, the research employs a combination of literature review, semi-structured interviews, text analysis, and content analysis, emphasizing the integration of empirical fieldwork and theoretical frameworks. Key areas of focus include: (a) the current state of the farmland protection system, (b) the legal foundations for local enforcement, (c) the systematic mechanisms for implementing arable land protection, and (d) the coordinated oversight system involving both the Party and government. Notably, the practice of cultivated land protection faces several challenges, primarily stemming from two factors. Firstly, there exists a disconnect between the economic interests of certain illegal land users and the objectives of land management, which hinders effective enforcement. Secondly, environmental repercussions arise from misinterpretations of land policy or non-compliant land development practices aimed at profit, which contradict the goals of ecological sustainability. The study examines two approaches to address the issue: the distribution and effective use of land resources, and the capacity for monitoring and early warning systems. Findings indicate that Dongtai City in Jiangsu Province has rigorously implemented all national land management policies, while also preserving the adaptability of local townships in practical applications, thereby ensuring the consistency of both the quality and quantity of arable land.

A 30-m annual grassland dataset from 1991 to 2020 for Inner Mongolia, China

Grassland is a widely distributed land use type that provides essential resources for livestock production and serves as a crucial ecosystem component. Over the past decades, grassland has significantly degraded and shrunk due to climate change and human activities, with ongoing changes in its area. This study utilized the Google Earth Engine (GEE) and the Res-UNet++ model to analyze the phenological and spectral characteristics of grasslands in Landsat images for long-term annual monitoring. Additionally, the LandTrendr algorithm was utilized to correct long-term time series data for grasslands, yielding a map of grassland distribution in Inner Mongolia from 1991 to 2020. The results indicate that the overall spatial accuracy from 1991 to 2020 exceeded 96%, with a Kappa coefficient over 0.92, demonstrating high monitoring accuracy. In particular, the 2019 grassland monitoring area showed high consistency with data from the Third National Land Survey (TNLS), with a coefficient of determination (R^2) reaching 0.97, reflecting the high accuracy and reliability.

Increasing Community Health Knowledge in Karangrejo Village, Wungu District, Madiun Regency through Socialization, Mentoring, Cultivation and Utilization of Sambiloto Medicinal Plants.

Health is still an important topic in Karangrejo Village, Wungu District, Madiun Regency. Quoted from the local health center, the level of infectious diseases such as flu and skin diseases is still high. This activity aims to increase knowledge about the cultivation and benefits of the bitter medicinal plant (Andrographis paniculata) for health in Karangrejo Village. The methods used include land surveys, education about the health benefits of these plants, land cleaning, fertilization, as well as planting and cultivation training. The results of the activity showed an increase in public knowledge about the cultivation of the bitter medicinal plant and its benefits for health. In conclusion, the socialization, mentoring, cultivation and use of Sambiloto activities are useful for increasing knowledge about the cultivation and health benefits of the bitter medicinal plant in Karangrejo Village, Wungu District, Madiun Regency.

Between land and sea: A multidisciplinary approach to understand the Early Occupation of Sicily (EOS).

The island of Sicily is considered to be among the first occupied by humans in the European Upper Paleolithic. Studies to understand early occupation of the island are mostly concentrated on the northern shores. Our project, Early Occupation of Sicily (EOS), focuses on southeastern Sicily so to address questions regarding dispersal to Mediterranean islands and Late Pleistocene landscapes and environments. Here, we present the initial results of our terrestrial and underwater surveys in combination with archival work and analyses of museum collections. In SE Sicily very few Upper Paleolithic sites have been excavated and analyzed using scientific methods. We have relocated and assessed ~20 caves and rock shelters identified between the 1870s and 1990s, studied museum collections, and collected raw material to reconstruct procurement patterns. To identify new sites, we conducted land and underwater surveys to reconstruct paleo-shorelines and past environments. We have identified three sites, two on land and one partially submerged, that still contain unexplored archaeological sediments, demonstrated in one instance through seismic tomography. This work shows the potential of re-examining minimally studied sites and materials to reconstruct mobility patterns and environmental impact of the first inhabitants of the island.

Harmonization potential of the fragmented farmlands in Finland: The pros and cons for critical parcel characteristics

Agricultural landscapes have been shaped by gradual, partially optimized changes in farms and surrounding areas which have resulted in fragmented agricultural landownership and increased distances on farms. Since Finland joined the EU in 1995, the average farm size has more than doubled which has increased the distances on farms. This may have caused trade-offs with resource use efficiency, productivity, and sustainability. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential and impacts of land reallocation by integrating regional variability, logistical factors, and emerging satellite imagery, with an emphasis on enhancing resilience in future climates. This study estimated the theoretical potential for land reallocation between farms to reduce farmland fragmentation but also applied fixed land exchange rates (5 % to 40 %) with the primary aim to reduce distances within each farm depending on the farm size and region. The aim was also to identify co-benefits and trade-offs on the number of parcels in a farm, the production capacity of exchanged parcels, diversification potential, and the proximity of parcels to waterways. While keeping the farm size constant, large potential was found to optimize fragmented landscapes and reduce distances within farms especially on large farms. However, only a moderate exchange rate of 5 % almost halved the distances in the best cases of the farms, while exchange rates >20 % provided less additional logistic benefits. Thereby, modest, well targeted measures are not only more acceptable to landowners but may provide the most benefits with fewer trade-offs. In unsatisfactory cases, large parcels were replaced by higher numbers of smaller ones, productivity differences occurred, and closer parcels became more uniform, which may reduce diversification options, which are important for resilience and sustainability. Hence, merging and reshaping nearby parcels after reallocation might be needed to complete rationalization. Estimated changes in the proximity of the parcels to waterways tended to improve the farmers’ readiness to implement irrigation as an adaptation measure to climate change. The variable outcome of parcel reallocation emphasizes the central role of the current customer-driven consolidation system chaired by independent land surveyors to boost the land reallocation also in the future to improve logistics, resource efficiency, and sustainability on farms that today struggle with cost-crises.

Spatial Computing Opportunities in Biomedical Decision Support: The Atlas-EHR Vision

We consider the problem of reducing the time that healthcare professionals need to understand the patient’s medical history through the next generation of biomedical decision support. This problem is societally important because it has the potential to improve healthcare quality and patient outcomes. However, navigating electronic health records (EHR) is challenging due to high patient-doctor ratios, potentially long medical histories, urgency of treatment for some medical conditions, and patient variability. The current EHR systems provide only a longitudinal view of patient medical history, which is time-consuming to browse, and doctors often need to engage nurses, residents, and others for initial analysis. To overcome this limitation, we envision an alternative spatial representation of patient histories (e.g., electronic health records) and other biomedical data in the form of Atlas-EHR. Just like Google Maps, which allows a global, national, regional, and local view, Atlas-EHR can start with an overview of the patient’s anatomy and history before drilling down to spatially anatomical subsystems, their individual components, or subcomponents. Atlas-EHR presents a compelling opportunity for spatial computing since healthcare is almost a fifth of the US economy. However, traditional spatial computing designed for geographic use cases (e.g., navigation, land survey, and mapping) faces many hurdles in the biomedical domain. This article presents several open research questions under this theme in five broad areas of spatial computing.

Laboratory Tests of Metrological Characteristics of a Non-Repetitive Low-Cost Mobile Handheld Laser Scanner.

The popularity of mobile laser scanning systems as a surveying tool is growing among construction contractors, architects, land surveyors, and urban planners. The user-friendliness and rapid capture of precise and complete data on places and objects make them serious competitors for traditional surveying approaches. Considering the low cost and constantly improving availability of Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS), mainly handheld surveying tools, the measurement possibilities seem unlimited. We conducted a comprehensive investigation into the quality and accuracy of a point cloud generated by a recently marketed low-cost mobile surveying system, the MandEye MLS. The purpose of the study is to conduct exhaustive laboratory tests to determine the actual metrological characteristics of the device. The test facility was the surveying laboratory of the University of Agriculture in Kraków. The results of the MLS measurements (dynamic and static) were juxtaposed with a reference base, a geometric system of reference points in the laboratory, and in relation to a reference point cloud from a higher-class laser scanner: Leica ScanStation P40 TLS. The Authors verified the geometry of the point cloud, technical parameters, and data structure, as well as whether it can be used for surveying and mapping objects by assessing the point cloud density, noise and measurement errors, and detectability of objects in the cloud.

Modernizing Land Survey Techniques in East Africa: Challenges and Opportunities

As East Africa undergoes rapid urbanization and economic growth, the need for modernized land survey techniques has become critical. Traditional methods are insufficient for keeping up with the evolving landscape. This article explores the adoption of advanced technologies such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and drone technology in land surveying. These innovations promise enhanced accuracy, efficiency, and comprehensive data collection, benefiting urban planning, infrastructure development, and environmental management. However, the transition is challenged by infrastructural deficits, high costs, limited technical expertise, and outdated regulatory frameworks. This article discusses the current technological advancements, challenges, and opportunities for improvement, emphasizing the need for investments in infrastructure, public-private partnerships, capacity building, and regulatory reforms. Vital information were sorted from recent related published database and utilised in writing this paper. Modernizing land survey techniques in East Africa holds significant potential to support sustainable development and effective land management practices. Keywords: Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing, Drone Technology, Land Survey Modernization, East Africa Development

Multifunctional evaluation and multiscenario regulation of non-grain farmlands from the grain security perspective: Evidence from the Wuhan Metropolitan Area, China

Non-grain production (NGP) represents a complex social phenomenon driven by a range of interests that involve agricultural development, livelihood security, and ecological preservation. It significantly alters the structure of agricultural production and vegetation cover, influencing regional grain supply and the multifunctional composition of agriculture. To achieve sustainable development goals related to grain supply and ecological stability, this study proposes a research framework for multifunctional evaluation and multiscenario regulation of non-grain farmlands (NGFs). First, NGFs in the Wuhan metropolitan area (WHM) were extracted based on land survey data to carry out multifunctional evaluation of NGFs, including production function, ecological functions and recreational function. Second, the SOM+K-means algorithm is used to identify and explore the multifunctional bundle characteristics of NGFs to determine the regulation priority order of NGFs. Finally, a multiscenario simulation of the rigid control scale and layout arrangement of NGFs from the grain security perspective is carried out. The research results show that (1) there are 1294.34 thousand ha of NGFs in the WHM, mainly of grain and non-grain rotation type (52.36 %). The production function is higher in the central and western Jianghan Plain areas than in the northeastern and southern hilly mountainous areas; the ecological functions are the opposite; the high-value areas of recreational function are mainly located around the built-up areas of the city. (2) Multifunctional bundles divide NGFs into seven categories and determine the order of regulation based on the principle of "production priority, functional diversity". (3) By setting different grain security scenarios, it is predicted that the rigid control scale of NGFs in the WHM in 2030 is 256.08–797.55 thousand ha. Divide and restore grain production in order of the priority zone for grain production, the reserve zone for grain production, the resilience zone for grain production, the ecological improvement zone and the agricultural improvement zone, so as to achieve a regulatory layout of strict control and adaptable regulation of NGFs. The research supports the regulation of NGFs in balancing grain security and ecological stability to promote sustainable agricultural production.

Acoustic full-waveform inversion on land surveys: A case study on the Qademah fault, Saudi Arabia

Geophysical methods have been used to map a Qademah fault near a residential area in western Saudi Arabia. However, the location and spatial extension of the fault zone are still uncertain due to the limited resolution and length of geophysical surveys. We apply seismic full-waveform inversion (FWI) to a land survey 2 km in length, the result of which reveals more details of the fault as well as the subsurface. Before inversion, we remove the surface waves, converted waves, and other elastic phenomena in the f- k domain and normalize the trace amplitude to compensate for attenuation, such that wavefield modeling for FWI can be approximated by acoustic propagators with constant density. Due to the large wavefield amplitudes near the source-receiver positions, the FWI velocity gradient presents a singular zone in the near surface, which is muted to stabilize the inversion. We also invert the short-offset traces before the larger-offset traces to avoid cycle skipping at the far offsets and obtain a reasonable data fit despite some mismatches in the near offsets. The final FWI velocity model shows the Qademah fault at approximately 1000 m distance as well as three low-velocity anomalies at 100 m depth, confirmed by first-arrival traveltime tomography. We also observe a potential low-velocity layer at 250–300 m depth, which was not reported in former studies. This model can also be used for geologic interpretation, hazard assessment, and paleoseismology studies of the local area.

Innovative Research on Land Resource Studies Curriculum Based on the Integration of OBE and CDIO Concepts

Land Resource Studies is an interdisciplinary applied science that encompasses the study of related concepts of land resources, types of land, their characteristics and spatial distribution, quantity and quality of land, land survey and evaluation, land development and utilization, land governance and restoration, as well as land protection and management. By examining the current state and existing issues in the teaching of land resource courses, and integrating the OBE-CDIO concept, this study conducts reforms and innovations from multiple dimensions including OBE outcome-oriented educational innovation, CDIO engineering education model innovation, and the integration of ideological and political elements. The ultimate goal is to realize a student-centered, outcome-oriented, and theory-practice integrated approach in the land resource studies curriculum. This innovation aims to cultivate students ability for systematic thinking and hands-on practice, achieving the goal of training interdisciplinary talents in the field of land resource studies.

Pure quasi-P-wave modeling and imaging using an approximated space-domain pseudo-differential operator in vertical transverse isotropy media

Incorporating anisotropy in seismic modeling and imaging is important to produce the correct locations of subsurface reflectors. Traditional wave equations for quasi-P-wave in transverse isotropic media either suffer from S-wave artifacts or require complicated and expensive computation strategies. To mitigate this issue, we develop a novel pure quasi-P-wave equation with an approximated space-domain pseudo-differential operator in the vertical transverse isotropic (VTI) medium. For the pure quasi-P-wave equation, we first simplify it to an elliptical anisotropy equation with an additional pseudo-differential correction term. Then, we directly approximate the pseudo-differential term with a space-domain convolution operator that is calculated by solving a nonlinear inverse problem. Phase-velocity analysis and numerical modeling show that the new space-domain pseudo-differential operator has good accuracy in describing wave propagation in the VTI medium. In addition, it is more suitable for parallel computation with domain-decomposition than the Fourier transform, which is necessary for solving traditional pseudo-differential operators. Finally, we apply our quasi-P-wave propagator to reverse time migration to correct the anisotropic effects in seismic imaging. Numerical experiments for the benchmark models and a land survey demonstrate the feasibility and adaptability of our method.

Driving mechanisms and multi-scenario simulation of land use change based on National Land Survey Data: a case in Jianghan Plain, China

The Jianghan Plain is simultaneously responsible for ecological protection, food security and urbanization, and land use conflicts are prominent. Revealing the driving mechanism of land use/cover change (LUCC) and simulating the land use pattern can help to coordinate the land use conflicts in the future. Utilizing the National Land Survey Data (NLSD) of Jiangling County in Jianghan Plain (2011–2020) and the patch-generating land use simulation (PLUS) model, this paper analyzed the characteristics of land use evolution, applied the random forest classification (RFC) to analyze the driving mechanism, simulated the 2035 land use pattern under three scenarios of natural development, planning guidance and ecological protection through Markov and Cellular Automaton based on multiple random seeds (CARS) models, and proposed several countermeasures. The study found that: 1) From 2011 to 2020, town construction land increased, village construction land, agricultural land and ecological land decreased. 2) The factors driving LUCC were socio-economic factors, spatial factors, and natural factors in descending order. 3) In the three scenarios, the trend of construction land expansion, agricultural land and ecological land encroachment is inevitable by 2035. 4) It is imperative to actively advocate for large-scale mechanization and informatization of agricultural production, encourage the repurposing of idle and inefficiently used construction land, facilitate multi-purpose land utilization, and implement a policy of locally balancing occupation and compensation for cultivated and ecological land. 5) When employing the PLUS model to simulate LUCC, using continuous NLSD yielded more accurate results than remote sensing image interpretation data. This study offers a theoretical basis for the coordinated development of land use in Jianghan Plain, and presents a method to enhance the simulation accuracy of the PLUS model.

LAND LAW, LAND RELATIONS AND ISSUES OF LAND SURVEY IN HISTORICAL ARMENIA BY WORKS OF S. BAHATREANTS AND H. MUSAELYAN

Studies of land relations, land law and land survey issues in different eras in Armenia are now more relevant and important than ever. Armenian nakharars, meliks and even peasants for many centuries basically preserved the lands they owned, land titles (in particular, the right of inheritance) and forms of land tenure even during the times of foreign conquests and loss of statehood. The paper focuses on these particular objectives. The presented sources are investigated for the first time from the point of view of land law, land relations, and the history of land management.

BAFormer: A Novel Boundary-Aware Compensation UNet-like Transformer for High-Resolution Cropland Extraction

Utilizing deep learning for semantic segmentation of cropland from remote sensing imagery has become a crucial technique in land surveys. Cropland is highly heterogeneous and fragmented, and existing methods often suffer from inaccurate boundary segmentation. This paper introduces a UNet-like boundary-aware compensation model (BAFormer). Cropland boundaries typically exhibit rapid transformations in pixel values and texture features, often appearing as high-frequency features in remote sensing images. To enhance the recognition of these high-frequency features as represented by cropland boundaries, the proposed BAFormer integrates a Feature Adaptive Mixer (FAM) and develops a Depthwise Large Kernel Multi-Layer Perceptron model (DWLK-MLP) to enrich the global and local cropland boundaries features separately. Specifically, FAM enhances the boundary-aware method by adaptively acquiring high-frequency features through convolution and self-attention advantages, while DWLK-MLP further supplements boundary position information using a large receptive field. The efficacy of BAFormer has been evaluated on datasets including Vaihingen, Potsdam, LoveDA, and Mapcup. It demonstrates high performance, achieving mIoU scores of 84.5%, 87.3%, 53.5%, and 83.1% on these datasets, respectively. Notably, BAFormer-T (lightweight model) surpasses other lightweight models on the Vaihingen dataset with scores of 91.3% F1 and 84.1% mIoU.