Land Readjustment Research Articles

Study on Background and Implementation of Multi-level Replotting in Land Readjustment Law

Study on Background and Implementation of Multi-level Replotting in Land Readjustment Law

Study on Generation and Utilization of Vacant Lots in Land Readjustment Project Areas after the Earthquake Disaster

Study on Generation and Utilization of Vacant Lots in Land Readjustment Project Areas after the Earthquake Disaster

The process of transition to a value-based distribution model in the Turkish land readjustment system

The Turkish Land Readjustment (LR) System is a area-based system. The system is based on the principle of equal land contribution in return for the increase in value that will occur with the LR implementation. However, the applied area-based method is criticized because it does not ensure equality, does not include the construction of technical infrastructure and social facilities, is not participatory, and does not bring the increase in value to the public. For this reason, a study has been initiated by the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change to diversify plan implementation tools. The article presents the results of the study regarding the value-based LR model. According to the findings of the research, as an alternative to the current area-based LR System in Turkey, the application of the value-based method will add a new dimension to the Turkish LR System. The fact that the country has a developed cadastral system ensures that area-based LR is carried out healthfully. However, the inadequacy of the valuation infrastructure makes the transition to value-based LR difficult. In Turkey, suddenly switching to value-based practices without a well-established valuation infrastructure may completely stop the existing parcel production capacity. For this reason, alternative models should be gradually incorporated into the system by eliminating the shortcomings of the current method. In the article, short, medium and long-term suggestions are presented for the management of the transition process, in line with the findings obtained from the research in the Turkish LR System.

From sleeping beauty to proven solution: The transformation of land readjustment into an informal settlement upgrading tool

Land readjustment (LR) has undergone a significant transformation, evolving from a private-owner-centric mechanism to a proven tool for upgrading low-income, informal settlements. This article traces the efforts by multilateral and bilateral organisations, along with think tanks, to promote LR as both a relevant and implementable tool in the Global South. It delineates three distinct phases in LR's evolution: its initial unsuccessful integration into the UN's Habitat I agenda in 1976, a subsequent phase of recalibration aimed at broadening its applications and outreach in the 2000s, and finally, its endorsement in 2018 as an effective tool for informal settlement upgrading. Focusing on the roles of policy mediators, including bilateral and multilateral organisations, the article sheds light on the practices, politics, and power dynamics at play in the movement and mutation of policy models. It also examines the conditions leading to success and instances where expected policy outcomes and their mobilisation failed to materialise.

Enhancing Turkish land readjustment via a combination of IPA-based on SWOT and workshops

Land Readjustment (LR), a tool for generating land and frequently applied in the world, is also used in Türkiye in areas where 1/1000 scale implementation development plans are available. In world examples, Land Readjustment Implementation (LRi) is preferred in small application areas, integrated with applications focused on urban transformation and urban renewal. Considering exemplary LRi in the world, LRi in Germany and Japan attract attention. With the LR method, construction is completed by producing development parcels with all infrastructure facilities in a city. Independent sections in buildings built on produced parcels; commercial, residential etc. are used for different purposes. Unlike world LRi, the LR method is used in larger areas in Türkiye. However, in Türkiye, development parcels that do not have infrastructure (and it is unknown when the construction will be completed) are also produced. In fact, it is known that there are some problems with Türkiye's LRi. As a matter of fact, in order to eliminate these problems, revisions have been frequently made in the legal legislation regarding LR. Although the LR method has been improving and modified, it is still criticized. The aim of this study is to identify and eliminate the deficiencies of the method. A number of different studies were conducted for this purpose. The studies were carried out by geomatics engineers, the only discipline authorized to perform LRi in Türkiye. The opinions and suggestions of qualified geomatics engineers who are experts in LR and experts involved in the implementations were taken, the scientific studies produced by researchers were analysed, and all this information was taken into account and evaluated together in the light of world literature. In the study, firstly, current situation analyses and literature review were conducted. Thus, problems were identified with the support of literature and solution approaches were developed according to expert opinions. LR practices of successful countries were examined and suggestions were developed based on the information obtained from them. LRi was made in the determined areas and the actual implementation results were compared with the draft implementation results created according to the models developed within the scope of the study. Workshops were held with LR expert geomatics engineers, technical staff and LR expert researchers. Legal regulations have been proposed to implement the developed models. SWOT analysis, a tool widely used for strategic planning and traditionally known as a form of brainstorming, was chosen as a method adapted by applying Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) to rank the opinions of field experts and academics. The most important results obtained from the study can be listed that LRi is only area-based, has no alternative approaches to value-based LRi in practice in the current LR legislation, does not encourage public participation, is generally carried out as mandatory. The most important recommendation presented by the study is to provide, gradual transition from area-based to value-based LRi including different applicable alternative methods.

The role of land values in land policies: The case of Turkish land readjustment

The many problems in cities increase the need for effective land policies. Land values are at the core of land policy frameworks as they shape the implementation strategies of local governments, their effectiveness, and the consequences for individuals and society. The aim of this paper is to examine how land values within the land policy framework influence land policy objectives, with a particular focus on land readjustment. More specifically, through a three-step research process, we examine: (1) the current problems and potential improvements of Turkish area-based land readjustment through an analytical framework; (2) the potential impact of a specific policy intervention involving the provision of land values in land readjustment on land development objectives through a multiple case study approach; and (3) the broader implications of a new value-based land readjustment as a land policy instrument. The results suggest that land readjustment, by incorporating valuation, could provide better land development by enabling the acquisition and construction of public and infrastructure areas, has the potential to address the trade-offs faced by local governments, put fiscal decentralization into practice, and contribute to the development of legitimacy, effectiveness, efficiency, and equity in public land development strategies and land management.

Shareholding Land Readjustment Led by Local Government During Peri-Urbanization: The Case of Zhaoqing, China

This paper focuses on a new model of land readjustment integrated with shareholding in Zhaoqing, China. It determines whether this innovation reduces transaction costs throughout the land development process. To cope with the uncertainty during rapid urbanization in peripheral areas, shareholding land readjustment provides opportunities for the original landowners to share the long-term sustainable land value increment. This is accomplished through a shareholding platform built by local government and a closely associated state-owned enterprise, with a guarantee of short-term fixed compensation. Shareholding land readjustment holds great promise in connecting plan implementation with land property exchange issues in the Global South.

Tree plantation for implementing the land utilization policies incorporate with sustainable development towards environmental concerns in Assam, India

Environmental scientists have been considering the best use of natural resources in recent years, and in order to maintain sustainability, the government can no longer manage these resources alone without the support of the local people. The study aimed to assess the effectiveness of tree plantations in the hillsides and wasteland for addressing sustainable environmental considerations and providing a framework for implementing land utilization policies incorporated with sustainable developmental work towards environmental concerns and priorities. In this continuous and progressive-centered participatory research, 300 participants voluntarily joined in two stages of fieldwork, planted 300 saplings, and nurtured them for approximately four years. Because of the tropical monsoon, the mountain climate with high temperatures, frequent heavy rains, and high humidity, as well as the ongoing efforts of the local peoples to care for the agro-forestry saplings, this tree plantation operation in the hillsides and wasteland was successful. The locals continued to care for the saplings even after the project was completed in order to find both immediate and long-term financial benefits. Nonetheless, participant feedback was gathered, and the skewed median centered data was analyzed using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-test to evaluate the working hypotheses. The findings showed that there were no significant differences in the opinion of the participants' with planting trees or their comprehension of using human potential for sustainable farming, land readjustment, and food management. It concluded that tree plantation could provide a framework for implementing land utilization policies to incorporate sustainable development towards environmental concerns and priorities in Assam, India.

Enabling planned urban settlements through land readjustment - A case study from Kigali, Rwanda

Urbanisation in sub-Saharan Africa has been characterised by inadequate infrastructure services due to insufficient financing coupled with prohibitively expensive approaches to land acquisition from private owners. Land readjustment (LR) has been promoted as an approach that has the potential to overcome financial challenges but studies on LR design in the context of sub-Saharan Africa are scanty. Using Nunga LR project in Kigali, Rwanda, this study analyses the adopted LR model, highlighting its benefits towards enabling development of formal urban settlements and suggests improvements. The results show that Nunga LR model overcomes the challenge of assembling land for infrastructure, has resulted in development of settlements adjacent to the project area with similar standards, but faces drawbacks that include inadequate land and cash contributions, inequitable sharing of project costs, inadequate construction of roads, uncertainties, and conversion of land planned for green spaces and social infrastructure. Establishing equal land contribution ratio and a revolving fund, levying betterment charges, designating and subsidising plots for social infrastructure and social/affordable housing can help curbing those drawbacks. This study contributes to the discourse on the application of LR as an innovative approach to overcoming infrastructure dearth and enabling formal human settlements in rapidly urbanising countries. These findings have implications for urban planning in the context of cities in the global south, where the rate of urban growth is high but city authorities face constraints in timely providing infrastructure.

The German Verkehrswert (market value) of land: Statutory land valuation, spatial planning, and land policy

In Germany, statutory land valuation has developed over the course of almost 60 years into a powerful tool of spatial planning and land policy. The key to statutory land valuation is the concept of Verkehrswert (market value). The Verkehrswert equals the likely selling price of a cadastral parcel of land in the usual course of business at the time of valuation, and considers the legal situation, the actual disposition of the parcel, any other relevant conditions, and the location of the land, but does not take into account unusual or personal circumstances. The article explains the elements of Verkehrswert (market value) which account for the plural values of land such as exchange value, use value, territorial value, and existence value. The German Verkehrswert is not merely an instrument of plan implementation (e.g., land readjustment or compensation for expropriation), but also an analytical tool that helps planners and land policymakers understand when their interventions in land markets are necessary and how they can be helpful.

Land Readjustment Model for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Projects: Generating Optimal Financial Benefits

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) projects are increasingly recognized as vital components of sustainable urban planning, aiming to create compact, walkable, and mixed-use communities centered around high-quality public transportation systems. However, implementing TOD projects poses significant challenges, especially in land acquisition and redistribution. This research addresses these issues in the context of the MRT Jakarta project and proposes a land readjustment approach as a potential solution. The study combined qualitative and quantitative methods to compare existing and ideal land use in the TOD area and benchmark successful TOD models from different countries. A comprehensive financial analysis was performed to assess the potential financial impacts of the proposed model. The analysis reveals differences between the existing land use in the Fatmawati TOD area and the ideal TOD model, suggesting the need for adjustments to achieve better land use diversity and economic vibrancy. The financial analysis demonstrates positive feasibility for the TOD project, surpassing the minimum attractive rate of return (MARR) threshold. However, the potential value of the reserved area covers only 16% of the total land readjustment (LR) costs, indicating the necessity for further measures to enhance financial feasibility. The study proposes leveraging existing apartment buildings as temporary relocation sites, optimizing resources, and increasing overall financial viability to address substantial relocation costs. Exploring different property redistribution scenarios reveals the importance of balancing landowners' benefits with the developer's financial feasibility for a successful TOD project. Overall, this research provides valuable insights and a comprehensive framework for implementing thriving and sustainable transit-oriented communities in Jakarta. Further research and collaboration among stakeholders are essential to refine the proposed model and ensure successful TOD project implementation in the future. Doi: 10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-10-012 Full Text: PDF

ANALYSIS OF TAX ASSESSMENT BY ASSEMBLY AND PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES IN FRAGMENTED URBAN LANDS – GWANGJIN DISTRICT, SEOUL, SOUTH KOREA

Due to the land readjustment project in Gwangjin District, Seoul, Korea, in the 1970s, Gwangjin was characterized as a single-family residential area for individual households. Over the following 40 years, the land-use situation changed dramatically, and ironically, there is now a too-fragmented residential area and very insufficient commercial areas. We employed a balanced panel data analysis. The data for this study were 24,177 parcel tax assessments and land assembly, split, zoning change, and property development activities over nine years from 2011 to 2019. We found that de facto land assembly would affect the tax assessment by delaying it a year more than it is when the development is approved, while formal land assembly did not. Development activity itself increased the assessment for that year only. Finally, formal land assembly in the commercial zone increased the assessment only for the following year, while property development in the residential zone increased the assessment for that year only. We recommend that the government provide land-assemblyfriendly policy incentives to allow for much larger property developments in both residential and commercial zones. The research on land and property development activities’ impact on tax assessment can provide a reasonable basis for the government’s tax assessment institution building.

Prerequisites and Factors for Effective and Efficient Implementation of Land Pooling/Reconstitution: Learnings from Asian Countries

The land pooling/readjustment (LP/R) technique has been extensively used for centuries for fostering planned urban development in various developing and developed countries. In the recent past LP/R models have emerged in several Indian states and cities as an alternate to compulsory land acquisition. These include land pooling in Raipur, Chhattisgarh through the Town Development Scheme - 2015, the land pooling policy for Delhi - 2013, land readjustment and land pooling in Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra - 2014, and land pooling for Amravati, Andhra Pradesh - 2015. There are several factors that could adversely affect the implementation of LP/R projects and different situations would require different kinds of contextually relevant approaches for effective implementation of LP/R projects. Given the emerging LP/R models in several Indian states as an alternative to compulsory land acquisition, this article analyses the opportunities and constraints as recorded in literature around the world, with a focus on Asian countries, to identify the prerequisites and factors for effective and efficient implementation of the LP/R mechanism.

De‐peripheralization and rural land capitalization: An empirical study of a public–private partnership in Zhaoqing, China

AbstractClassical urban geography theories determine the distribution of population, production and economic activities on geospatial features. Under this assumption, peripheral regions are rarely prosperous. Depopulation, weak industrial and employment structure and inefficient and fragmented land use form a negative feedback loop. Within the context of economic revitalization of peripheral area, this paper introduces an innovative Chinese practice on de‐peripheralization on the basis of two months of empirical research on the ‘two‐stage land demutualization reform’ in Zhaoqing, a city located at the peripheries of the Pearl River Delta (PRD). The reform successfully bonds the local stakeholders, stimulates the economy and resolves the land value capturing issue in urbanization. Local farmers in Zhaoqing founded an investment company with agricultural fields demutualized into stock shares and collaborated with the local government in improving local infrastructures and promoting economic investment in the secondary/tertiary sector. An in‐depth profile of the public–private partnership mechanism is collected through semi‐structured interviews conducted with locals. The results of the policy evaluation show that the rural land capitalization and inclusive design of the partnership regime removed the institutional barriers to socio‐economic development and brought attraction to the underprivileged area. The proposed joint development and value sharing policy framework contribute to the literature of institutional renovation for economic de‐peripheralization, especially for practices in land readjustment and zoning, resident resettlement, local employment provision and value capturing.

Land value uplift for infrastructure in land readjustment: a case study of Yeongdong (Gangnam) in Seoul, South Korea

This article was published open access under a CC BY licence: https://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/ This paper reviews the economic rationale of Land Readjustment (LR), investigating the (full-)cost recovery principle from the lens of the Henry George theorem in Korean contexts. This research articulates how land value uplift was used for infrastructure in LR. South Korean LR is explored due to the manifestation of the tight link between land value uplift and infrastructure. In Korean LR, a portion of land by private owners should be surrendered for new urban infrastructure. Nevertheless, the LR scheme was accepted by Korean landowners because serviced land converted from un-serviced land is more valuable. This research carries out a case study of the largest Korean LR project – Yeongdong (YD) – a central part of Gangnam in Seoul, on a land area of 26.8 km 2 implemented in the period 1967–1991. YD experienced drastic land value uplift as high as almost 13,000 times over twenty-six years after the conversion from farmland. Local-level infrastructure was fully funded by LR by virtue of land value uplift, without other public funds, demonstrating the land value-infrastructure nexus.

Developing pedestrian cities: The contribution of land readjustment projects to street vitality in Seoul, South Korea

This study focuses on the relationship between the type of urban development and street vitality. It empirically analyzes how Land Readjustment (LR) and Housing Site Development (HSD) have generated different outcomes in the pedestrian volume in Seoul. LR is one of the most common urban development techniques in the world, and HSD has been predominant in developing new urban areas in South Korea since the 1980s. The results of an empirical analysis with 9588 pedestrian volume survey sites revealed that the LR areas had smaller blocks and lots, like those advocated by Jacobs (1961), and greater pedestrian volume compared to the sites developed by HSD that has created modernism built environments. Findings illustrate that LR has not only produced the desired design, density, and diversity for pedestrian volume but also possibly contributed to promoting street vitality. The development type for sites should be considered an important factor that will create urban tissues and vitality in the future.

The Relationship of Land Assembly and Prices of Cost Equivalent Land in the Equalization of Land Rights Act

Since the first revision of the Equalization of Land Rights Act in 1958, urban land readjustment has become a dominant strategy and tool for urban land development. A crucial factor affecting financial self-liquidation of urban land readjustment is the distribution of cost-equivalent land, which is the land used to pay for public facilities within urban land readjustment regions. Cost-equivalent land can be used to fund land readjustment through market bidding. Studies on land prices have revealed that related factors, such as land-use intensity, individuals, and regions, affect the price of land. Studies have begun to focus on whether land transactions in urban land readjustment are similar to normal land transactions. The present study investigated the influence of land assembly on the land prices of cost-equivalent land and identified other factors by estimating hedonic price functions. The results indicate that general characteristics and land assembly are land price determinants. General characteristics, including the floor area ratio, width of the adjacent road, width of the base, depth of the base, street corner conditions, and bidding time, demonstrated a significant effect on the bidding price of cost-equivalent land. Fragmentation of the ownership of adjacent land had little effect on bidding price. Governments handling land allocation operations should consider the location of land. In addition, the aforementioned influencing factors are crucial and can lead to land having higher value.

How Does Farmland Tenure Security Affect Rural Household Income? Empirical Evidence of China’s Survey Data

A stable farmland tenure can optimize farmers’ allocation of production factors and then determine the income level and structure of farmers. In recent years, the reform of China’s farmland tenure system had been making efforts to strengthen the stability of farmland tenures. Will the farmland tenure security restrict agricultural development? Based on the data of the 2018 China Labor Dynamics Survey (CLDS), this paper empirically analyzes the impact of farmland tenure stability on rural household income and its mechanism. The results showed that the stability of land rights increased the per capita total income, wage income and agricultural productive income of farmers significantly. The stability of the farmland tenure significantly increased the income of rural households in plain areas and the income of rural households in villages with highly mechanied; additionally, employment opportunities increased significantly. The mechanism analysis showed that the stability of the farmland tenure had a significant positive effect on the total income of farmers by promoting the division of labor and agricultural investment. On this basis, this paper puts forward measures such as strictly controlling the readjustment of agricultural land, improving the rural labor market and financial market, and guiding nonplain areas to develop tertiary industry according to local conditions.

TRANSITION OF POLICIES FOR URBAN EXPANSION BY MUNICIPAL AUTHORITIES IN TOYAMA FOCUSING ON THEIR DEALING WITH “NON-COMPACT” CITY FORMATION UNTIL 1990’s

The purpose of this paper is to reveal transition of awareness of problems and policies for urban expansion in Toyama city. Since the 1960s, they had been concerned about the sprawling phenomenon, and proposed the implementation of planned land readjustment in the area adjacent to the existing urban area as a solution, but results were not efficient. On the other hand, they have long had a policy of ensuring the convenience of living in the ever-expanding urban area through transportation. It can be evaluated that the accumulation of such discussions became the basis of “Compact city” policy.

지방 항구도시의 토지이용 변화에 관한 연구 - 전라남도 여수시를 중심으로 -

This study is on the formation and the development process of urban space by referring to the literature in Yeosu where is the important location in logistics & transportation and maritime since the Japanese colonial period. There are many factors and results of the development process in Yeosu by the opening port, railroads, loads and industries. The purpose of this study is to understand the characteristics of the formation process of urban space and the characteristics of physical space in Yeosu. The results are as follow; The urban formation and development process in Yeosu where was a small fishing village in the 1910s is largely divided into four processes. Formation: the population increased due to constructions such as of a railroad, a port, and roads and there were many reclamations around the center of the old city center in the Japanese colonial period. Stagnation: There was no urban development due to stagnation, war, and the Yeo-sun Incident. Expand: the industrialization of the Yeocheon Industrial Complex and Gwangyang Steel and other areas around Yeosu led to a surge in Yeosu's population. To cope with this, the city was expanded through three land readjustment projects and the development of large-scale residential complexes. Decline and Remodeling: Yeosu's urban space declined due to the decline of fisheries and the decrease in marine and railway logistics. And the expansion and improvement of the transportation network for hosting the Yeosu World Expo increased the accessibility of the old city center, transforming it into a tourist city using cultural heritage and nature.