Land Equivalent Ratio Research Articles

Competition Indices and Economic Benefits of Winter Wheat and Winter Peas in Mixed Cropping

Intensive wheat production, which produces high yields through the excessive use of chemical inputs and non-renewable energy, is unsustainable in the long term. Innovative cultivation methods such as intercropping can address emerging challenges. This kind of plant association offers the possibility of achieving a balanced yield with the use of a natural nitrogen source. An experiment was conducted for three growing seasons (2020/2021, 2021/2022, 2022/2023) with a combination of three winter wheat varieties (GK Szilárd, Cellule, GK Csillag) and a winter pea variety (Aviron) in three sowing densities to determine the species interaction and the economics of mixed plots. The intercropping systems were evaluated in terms of the land equivalent ratio (LER), aggressivity (A), competitive ratio CR), actual yield loss (AYL), monetary advantage index (MAI), and intercropping advantage (IA). In almost all mixtures, the values of partial A, CR, and AYL indicated that wheat was more competitive than peas due to the overconcentration of mixtures. For MAI, the mixture Cellule/Aviron 75:50 was more profitable than the others in the first two years. Our results draw attention to the influence of the seeding rate, which can contribute to new directions for current research.

Adoption of Cereal–Legume Double Cropping toward More Sustainable Organic Systems in the Mediterranean Area

Environmental benefits can be achieved by organic farming systems; however, weed pressure and timely crop nutrition remain important drawbacks for many field crops. Agroecological practices, such as double cropping (e.g., intercropping and relay cropping), using forage legume species can provide nitrogen (N) to the companion crop through biological N fixation and tackle weed issues by competing for light, water and land. The present study investigated the effect of intercropping (IC) and relay-cropping (RC) systems of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum (Desf.) Husn) and forage legumes (Trifolium subterraneum L., Medicago polymorpha L., and Lotus corniculatus L.) by varying organic N fertilization with the aim to reduce N-requirement and weed pressure and increase wheat grain yield and grain protein content in Mediterranean organic farming systems. N fertilizer significantly improved wheat grain yield and grain protein, while a null effect on legume and weed biomass yields was found. Double cropping (T. durum-M. polymorpha, and T. durum-L. corniculatus) enhanced wheat grain yield as compared to the control and the T. durum-T. subterraneum. IC significantly improved legume yield, grain protein and the land equivalent ratio (LER) and reduced weed dry biomass as compared with the RC and the control. Among legume species, T. subterraneum outperformed the others and was less affected by the wheat’s competitive performance. Nonetheless, M. polymorpha was as effective as T. subterraneum in controlling weeds. Weed dry biomass was linearly reduced by increasing legume yield; the relationship improved by cumulating wheat grain yield to legume yield. Overall, this study indicated that double cropping, especially IC, can be a suitable agroecological practice to tackle weed issues and reduce N-requirement in Mediterranean organic cereal-based systems.

Rowth of Betung Bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) and Food Crop Production Under Agroforestry Bamboo Systems

One of the main species in community forests is betung bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper). Optimizing land use under bamboo can be achieved by cultivating food crops. This research aimed to determine the growth of betung bamboo and the production of food crops. The experimental design used a split plot design with four cultivation patterns as the main plots: agroforestry bamboo pattern i.e. agroforestry bamboo + rice (P1), agroforestry bamboo + rice + cassava (P2), agroforestry bamboo + rice + taro (P3), and mixed food crops (rice + cassava + taro) (P4), while the subplots were rice varieties: rindang 2 (V1), protani (V2), and unsoed (V3). The observed parameters were bamboo growth, soil fertility, and food crop production. The results showed that seven-year-old betung bamboo had an average of 6.01 mature stems per clump, an average plant height of 7.23 m, and a stem diameter of 7.12 cm. The numbers of young stems and shoots per clump was 1.45 and 3.71. The highest betung bamboo growth was in the agroforestry pattern (length: 8,49 m, diameter: 7.17 cm, thickness: 1.95, total weight: 21.31 kg). The highest rice yield was observed in the P2V1 treatment (4.17 kg). The highest cassava tuber yield per plant was observed in P4 (2.12 kg). The taro tuber yield was relatively higher in the agroforestry pattern with a distance of >1 m from the bamboo clump (0.52 kg plant-1). The land equivalent ratio (LER) and area time equivalent ratio (ATER) of bamboo and food crop agroforestry have a value above 1, so it is more efficient in land.

Hasil Dan Nisbah Kesetaraan Lahan Dua Varietas Cabai Merah (Capsicum annum L.) Yang Ditumpangsarikan Dengan Kacang Tanah Di Lahan Kering

Drylands with limited resource support need to increase their productivity. One indicator of land productivity is the land equivalence ratio (LER). This research aimed to study the growth and yield of red chili due to the effect of varieties and peanut planting times in intercropping systems to increase dryland productivity. One experiment was conducted in Amor-amor Hamlet, Gumantar Village, Kayangan Sub-district, North Lombok Regency, from March to August 2023. The red chili varieties tested were Baja MC (hybrid) and Landung (non-hybrid). Meanwhile, peanut (Hypoma 2 variety) planting time was at the same time, one week after planting (WAP) of chili and 3 WAP. The treatments were arranged factorially using a Randomized Block Design with three replications. All component crops had monoculture treatments to calculate LER. The results showed no interaction between variety and planting time on all parameters observed. Variety had no significant effect on growth and LER but significantly affected the yield of chili. The Landung variety produced higher yields than the Baja MC variety. Planting time treatment had no significant effect on growth and LER but significantly affected the yield of chili. The planting time of peanut that produced the highest yield was 3 WAP. The intercropping of chili with peanuts at all planting times increased dryland productivity with LER values greater than 1.0

N2 Fixation, N Transfer, and Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) in Grain Legume-Wheat Intercropping: Impact of N Supply and Plant Density.

Intercropping legumes with cereals can lead to increased overall yield and optimize the utilization of resources such as water and nutrients, thus enhancing agricultural efficiency. Legumes possess the unique ability to acquire nitrogen (N) through both N2 fixation and from the available N in the soil. However, soil N can diminish the N2 fixation capacity of legumes. It is postulated that in intercropping, legumes uptake N mainly through N2 fixation, leaving more soil N available for cereals. The latter, in turn, has larger root systems, allowing it to explore greater soil volume and absorb more N, mitigating its adverse effects on N2 fixation in legumes. The goal of this study was to evaluate how the supply of N affects the intercropping of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) and peas (Pisum sativum L.) with wheat under varying plant densities and N levels. We measured photosynthetic traits, biomass production, the proportion of N derived from air (%Ndfa) in the shoot of the legumes, the N transferred to the wheat, and the land equivalent ratio (LER). The results revealed a positive correlation between soil N levels and the CO2 assimilation rate (An), chlorophyll content, and N balance index (NBI) in wheat. However, no significant effect was observed in legumes as soil N levels increased. Transpiration (E) increased in wheat intercropped with legumes, while stomatal conductance (gs) increased with N addition in all crops. Water use efficiency (WUE) decreased in faba beans intercropped with wheat as N increased, but it showed no significant change in wheat or peas. The shoot dry matter of wheat increased with the addition of N; however, the two legume species showed no significant changes. N addition reduced the %Ndfa of both legume species, especially in monoculture, with peas being more sensitive than faba beans. The intercropping of wheat alleviated N2 fixation inhibition, especially at high wheat density and increased N transfer to wheat, particularly with peas. The LER was higher in the intercropping treatments, especially under limited N conditions. It is concluded that in the intercropping of wheat with legumes, the N2 fixation inhibition caused by soil N is effectively reduced, as well as there being a significant N transfer from the legume to the wheat, with both process contributing to increase LER.

The role of partner species in the crop cocultures: A meta- analysis

Crop cocultures (the growing of one crop with another plant or animal species as partner) are known to increase yield and other ecosystem services. However, whether and how partner species (i.e., the species grown together with the focal crop) affect coculture effects is poorly understood. Here, we test the effects of partner species using a meta-analysis. Two types of cocultures (i.e., crop-crop and rice-fish cocultures) with 19 cereals as focal crops were considered, and 136 plant or animal species were involved. We found that cocultures increased focal crop yield, the land equivalent ratio and soil organic matter (SOM), and decreased insect pest infestation. Farming practices (i.e., fertilization, pesticide use, and irrigation) did not alter these coculture effects on yield, but fertilization decreased the coculture effect on SOM, and pesticide use reduced the coculture effect on pest control. Without irrigation, cocultures increased yield under drought conditions compared to normal moisture conditions. Beneficial coculture effects were obtained with both plant and animal partner species and under both patterns of partner species grown with focal crops (species addition and species replacement). Functional types of partner plants (i.e., C3, C4, legume and non-legume plants) and taxonomic groups of partner animals (i.e., crabs, fish, shrimps, and turtles) affected coculture effects on yield, SOM, and insect pests. Both multiple functional trait distance and single functional trait distance between the focal crops and plant partners correlated with coculture effect on yield. The results suggest that biological types of partner species are important in obtaining beneficial effects of cocultures.

Additive intercropping system or acaricides: which one is more efficient to prevent population buildup of two-spotted spider mite?

Habitat manipulation such as intercropping can be used as a simple and common cultural practice in pest management. This method is based on the principle of reducing pest populations by increasing the diversity of an ecosystem. This study has been carried out to evaluate the influence of additive series intercropping common bean with some aromatic plants (AP), and 2 acaricides on the different life stages (egg, immature mobile stages, and adult) of Tetranychus urticae Koch (Trombidiformes: Tetranychidae), over 2 yr of experimentation (2020 and 2021). This experiment was conducted following a randomized complete block design with 7 treatments including common bean monoculture, common bean sprayed by spiromesifen or Dayabon, and common bean + companion plants (coriander, ajwain, basil, or dill). Each treatment was replicated 3 replicates. The lowest and highest number of eggs, immature mobile stages, and adults were observed in common bean + spiromesifen and the common bean monoculture, respectively. Additionally, the common bean + Dayabon supported significantly different T. urticae life stage densities compared to common bean monoculture. Also, among intercropped treatments, common bean + basil showed the lowest number of T. urticae (eggs, immature mobile stages, and adults). The highest yield and land equivalent ratio were recorded in common bean + basil and common bean + spiromesifen, respectively. Finally, it can be concluded that additive intercropping with these AP can effectively decrease the T. urticae population density, which is useful for the safe production of common bean.

Performance of Direct-Seeded Upland Rice-Based Intercropping Systems Under Paired Rows in East-West Orientation

Production potential of rice based intercropping systems with legumes in Uganda is little known. Studies were conducted at Ikulwe Station of the National Agricultural Research Organisation to evaluate upland rice-based intercropping systems under paired-rows in the EW direction. A randomized complete block design with 3 replications was adopted during 2022 and 2023 with 8 pure stand and intercropped treatments. Adjustment from conventional planting to paired rows recorded high rice height and significant 1000 seed weights. In 2022 the 2 pure rice treatments produced significantly more tillers and panicles but legume intercrops reduced numbers of rice tillers and panicles. Intercropping significantly reduced the beans height (48%) and soybean pods (41%) during both years and also reduced the pods filling for beans (66%), groundnuts (36%) and soybeans (18.3%) during 2022. Although paired rice did not influence rice yield during both years, lower mean yield for rice (19.8%), beans (35%), groundnuts (33%) and soybeans (30.5%) were recorded. Lower legume intercrop yields were similarly recorded for beans (70%), groundnuts (73%) and soybeans (62%) during 2023. Partial (p) land equivalent ratios (LER) for intercrops were not significant and less than unity, but the one for rice intercropped with beans increased to more than unity (1.06) during 2023. All combined LER for rice-legumes were more than unity and the pLER of sole crops was 1.0. Rice + beans recorded high area time equivalent ratio during the 2 years while high relative equivalent yield and monetary advantage indices were recorded under rice + soybeans. Rice was more aggressive than other crops and intercropped treatments recorded higher Total Rice Grain yield equivalent (TRGYE) than sole rice. Rice + soybeans (2022) and rice + beans (2023) scored higher TRGY. The findings suggest that farmers can intercrop soybean in rice under paired rows in EW orientation for more benefits.

Growth, Yield and Yield Components of Maize (Zea Mays L.) As Influenced by Cropping Systems and Different Npk20:10:10 Compound Fertilizer Rates

Field trials were conducted during the 2022 and 2023 cropping seasons at Prince Abubakar Audu University Research and Students Demonstration farm, Anyigba, to evaluate and compare the growth and yield performance of maize under three cropping systems and four NPK20:10:10 compound fertilizer rates. A sole crop of maize was initially established at the four fertilizer rates tested, using the randomized complete block design, and replicated three times. For the purpose of double cropping, maize seeds were replanted after the harvest of the sole crop maize, while a second crop of maize, also grown for the harvest of dry grains, was sown in between the rows of the sole crop maize in relay cropping, as soon as tasselling began. Maize data collected included plant height, days to first tasseling, days to 50 % tasseling, cob length at harvest, number of grains per cob, 1000-grain weight and grain yield per hectare. Results showed non-significant interactions (P˃0.05) of cropping system and fertilizer rate for most parameters measured, except plant height at 3, 6 and 9 WAP and 1000-grain weight. Averaged over two years, grain yield was higher under mono-cropping but was different (P˂0.05) only under relay cropping, where the lowest grain yield was obtained. The higher land equivalent ratio values of double cropping over relay intercropping across the fertilizer rates tested suggest that it is a better system for increasing maize production in the zone.

Intercropping Chickpea with Durum Wheat Enhances Nutrient Uptake and Grain Yield Under Low Phosphorus Availability

ABSTRACT Intercropping is a traditional farming system that increases crop diversity to strengthen agroecosystem functions while decreasing chemical inputs and minimizing negative environmental effects of crop production. However, the effect of intercropping legume-cereal in enhancing nutrient uptake and use efficiency under low phosphorus (P) soils is poorly understood. Growth, nodulation, P uptake and use efficiency, and changes in inorganic P availability in the rhizosphere of intercropped species were thus investigated in a field experiment with durum wheat and chickpea either grown alone or intercropped. The results showed that both plant biomass and grain yield, and consequently, the amount of P uptake by intercropped durum wheat increased significantly (30%, 12%, and 46%, respectively) compared with sole cropping during the two seasons. P availability increased in the rhizosphere of the two species, either grown as sole crops or as intercrops, and was enhanced by intercropping. Moreover, total biomass, grain yield, and P uptake were significantly improved, as indicated by higher land equivalent ratio (LER > 1) in intercropping over sole cropping treatments. The increased biomass and grain yield for intercropped durum wheat were associated with the stimulation of P absorption and use efficiency. Furthermore, intercropped wheat was more competitive than their respective chickpea over two growing seasons. The results of this study suggest that changes in the intercropped chickpea rhizosphere may enhance plant growth, P uptake, and use efficiency of the intercropped wheat under low-P soils.

Grain yield and interspecific competition in an oat-common vetch intercropping system at varying sowing density.

Oat (Avena nuda L.) and common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) intercropping in the northern regions of China has resulted in substantial production capabilities. However, there is currently a dearth of comprehensive research on whether this intercropping system can enhance productivity through increased sowing densities and underlying interspecies interaction mechanisms. A two-year field experiment was conducted in 2022 and 2023 to investigate the yield, biological efficiency, economic efficiency, and competition indicators of oats and common vetch in a high-density intercropping system. Two cropping patterns (monocropping and intercropping) and five sowing densities (D1: 4.5×106 plants ha-1; D2:5.4×106 plants ha-1; D3:6.3×106 plants ha-1; D4: 7.2×106 plants ha-1; and D5: 8.1×106 plants ha-1) were arranged in a randomized block design. At the same sowing density, the intercropped oats exhibited greater grain yield than the monocultures. Increasing the oat sowing density significantly enhanced oat yield, with the D3 level in intercropping showing the highest yield increase, ranging from 30.98% to 31.85%, compared with the monoculture. The common vetch intercropping grain yield was maximized in the D2 treatment. The land equivalent ratio was maximized at the D2 level in both years and was significantly higher than D1, with the land equivalent coefficient, system productivity index, and percentage yield difference suggesting that increasing oat sowing densities improved the productivity of the intercropping system, with the best performance observed at the D2 level. For both years, the proportionate actual yield loss of oat was the highest at the D3 level; significantly surpassing D1, proportionate actual yield loss of common vetch and actual yield loss were the highest at level D2, both significantly surpassing D1. These indicates that appropriate densification contributes to the realization of the advantages of intercropping. With an increased oat sowing density, the economic benefits of the intercropping system were maximized at the D2 and D3 levels. Regarding intercropping competition, oat was the dominant crop under different sowing densities (Aggressivity for oat (AO)>0, relative crowding coefficient for oat (KO)>1, competition ratio for oat (CRO)>1), whereas common vetch was the inferior crop. Compared with the D1 level, the D2 level harmonized the aggressivity, competitive ratio, and relative crowding coefficients of oat and common vetch, significantly increasing crowding coefficient for common vetch (KV) and competition ratio for common vetch by 19.76% to 21.94% and 4.80% to 7.51%, respectively, while reducing KO and CRO. This result suggests that in the intercropping of common vetch and oat in alpine regions, rational densification can harmonize interspecific competition and thus improve the biological efficiency and economic benefits of intercropping systems.

Intercropping Maize with Faba Bean Improves Yield, Income, and Soil Fertility in Semiarid Environment.

Continuous adoption of improved maize varieties in the last three decades has changed farm landscapes from heterogeneity to maize homogeneity in semiarid areas of Ethiopia. This has substantially decreased maize productivity. Recently, farmers have integrated faba bean into maize-based farming systems aimed at increasing productivity. Yet, there is limited information on the effects of maize-faba bean intercropping on productivity and land-use efficiency. We studied the effects of maize intercrops with two faba bean varieties (Gora and Moti) at three different densities (25, 50, and 75%) of the recommended sole faba bean (250,000 plants ha-1) on yield, economic return, and some soil fertility indicators in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Randomized complete block design with three replications was used for the experiment. The intercrops revealed that a significantly higher total grain yield, economic revenue, and land equivalent ratio (LER) over the sole cropping. Intercrops also showed higher soil organic carbon and total nitrogen compared to the preplanting soil and sole maize. Maize intercropped with the Gora faba bean variety at a density of 50% increased the total grain yields, economic return, and LER, respectively, by 13, 42, and 38% over the sole maize. The intercrop also increased soil total N by 55 and 22% compared to the preplanting soil and sole maize, respectively. Intercropping maize with faba bean significantly improved crop yield, income, land-use productivity, and some soil fertility indicators than either the sole maize or faba bean crop in the semiarid region of northern Ethiopia.

Agrivoltaic system design tools for managing trade-offs between energy production, crop productivity and water consumption

Agrivoltaic systems that locate crop production and photovoltaic energy generation on the same land have the potential to aid the transition to renewable energy by reducing the competition between food, habitat, and energy needs for land while reducing irrigation requirements. Experimental efforts to date have not adequately developed an understanding of the interaction among local climate, array design and crop selection sufficient to manage trade-offs in system design. This study simulates the energy production, crop productivity and water consumption impacts of agrivoltaic array design choices in arid and semi-arid environments in the Southwestern region of the United States. Using the Penman–Monteith evapotranspiration model, we predict agrivoltaics can reduce crop water consumption by 30%–40% of the array coverage level, depending on local climate. A crop model simulating productivity based on both light level and temperature identifies afternoon shading provided by agrivoltaic arrays as potentially beneficial for shade tolerant plants in hot, dry settings. At the locations considered, several designs and crop combinations exceed land equivalence ratio values of 2, indicating a doubling of the output per acre for the land resource. These results highlight key design axes for agrivoltaic systems and point to a decision support tool for their development.

Quinoa–Olive Agroforestry System Assessment in Semi-Arid Environments: Performance of an Innovative System

Agroforestry is a promising way to sustain land use efficiency in semi-arid areas. In this study, we introduce quinoa as a drought- and salinity-tolerant crop in olive-based agroforestry. We investigated how the microclimate created by olive trees affects agronomic and biochemical traits in quinoa and evaluated the performance of this new olive-based agroforestry system in terms of land equivalent ratio (LER). Field experiments were carried out under two pedoclimatic conditions (S1) and (S2) using a randomized complete block design with two cropping systems (sole crop (SCS) and agroforestry (AFS) systems), four quinoa cultivars (Puno, Titicaca, ICBA-Q5, and ICBA-Q4) and one olive orchard as a control (OR) in each block. Our results show that AFS had lower grain yield (−45%), dry biomass (−49%), and crop water productivity (−44%), but higher plant height (12%), grain protein (4%), saponin (26%), total polyphenol (12%), and DPPH (9%) contents compared to SCS. The highest grain yield was recorded for Titicaca and ICBA-Q5 (1.6 t ha−1). The LER ranged from 1.57 to 2.07, indicating that the overall productivity was 57% to 107% higher in the agroforestry system compared with the monoculture. We suggest that quinoa–olive tree intercropping could be a promising agroecological practice under semi-arid conditions.

Enhancing cotton sustainability: Multi-factorial intercropping, irrigation, and weed effects on productivity, quality and physiology

Drought stress and weed infestation are significant factors that significantly decrease cotton yield. Increasing the variety of plants within a cotton field ecosystem can strengthen its stability and protect it from susceptibility to both biotic and abiotic pressures. In this two-year experiment (2021 and 2022), the effects of intercropping systems (four growth conditions including mono- and inter-cropped cotton varieties Golestan and Hekmat with Nepeta crispa and dragon's head (Lallemantia iberica)), irrigation (three intervals of 3, 6, and 9 days), and weed competition (weed-free and weedy plots) on the agronomic performance, physiological characteristics, and seed quality of cotton in a semi-arid region of Iran were studied. In 2021, the volume of irrigation water applied was 9873, 6100, and 4650 m3 ha−1 for irrigation intervals of 3, 6, and 9 days, respectively. In 2022, the volumes were 9071, 5605, and 4272 m3 ha−1 for the corresponding irrigation intervals. Over two years, Xanthium strumarium, Amaranthus retroflexus, and Portulaca oleracea were the dominant weed species. Weeds had the most significant impact on total dry weight; weed control increased plant vigor and growth, ranging from 1.4 to 2.3 times, while weed impact on cottonseed yield ranged from 18% to 96% reduction. Increasing irrigation intervals resulted in reductions in various parameters, with decreases of 39%–80% in total dry weight, 34%–57% in cottonseed yield, and 48%–72% in lint yield. The harvest indices for seed cotton, cottonseed, and lint ranged from 35.3% to 56.5%, 18.3%–35.0%, and 15.4%–20.5%, respectively. Weeds were responsible for a 17% decrease in the 1000-seed weight. As the irrigation intervals increased from 3 days to 6 days and 9 days, the number of bolls per plant decreased by 19%–85%. Extending the irrigation interval from 3 days to 6 days and 9 days resulted in a substantial decrease in the photosynthetic rate, ranging from 42% to 92%. Mono-cropped Golestan performed well under unstressed conditions such as 3-day interval irrigation and weed-free conditions. On the other hand, intercropped Hekmat demonstrated better resilience to both moisture and weed stresses. The LER (Land equivalent ratio) indices of both intercropping systems were generally favorable, indicating higher productivity compared to sole cropping. The intercropping systems consistently showed the highest LER indices under weedy conditions, highlighting the significance of intercropping as a valuable method in integrated weed management.

A comparative analysis of the performance of common cropping systems used in the production of maize and selected grain legumes in Cameroon

Cropping systems and crop combinations are among vital practices to improve land utilisation with the limited arable land resource. Combinations of maize with legumes are common in Cameroon, but there is a knowledge gap on locality specificity of the best cropping system and maize/legume combination for sustained production. The experiment was conducted at the Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research farm, University of Buea. Different cropping systems and crop combinations were planted in a Randomized Complete Block Design with 13 treatments replicated three times. Data collected for vigour and yield parameters, were analyzed for significance using a two-way ANOVA and treatment means compared using Tukey HSD at 5 % probability, while additional data, were analysed for land equivalent and benefit-cost ratio. The findings reveal no significant differences in the yield of maize under different cropping systems, except for maize-dwarf bean mix cropping system (MDBM), which recorded the lowest yield (3.9 t/ha), with maize soybean intercropping (MSBI), recording the highest yield (5.9 t/ha) for maize. Indeterminate legumes (cowpea and climbing beans) recorded significant results for yield (MCPI = 1.7 t/ha; MCBI = 1.8 t/ha) under intercropping system. Likewise, determinate legumes (dwarf beans and soybeans) also recorded significant results for yield (DB = 2.2 t/ha; SB = 3.5 t/ha) under mono cropping system. Land equivalent ratios for intercropping and mixed cropping systems were highest with MCBI = 1.93 and MCBM = 1.76 and the benefit-cost ratios for intercropping and mixed cropping were >1, with MSBI recording the highest ratio of 3.5, followed by MSBM = 3.3. Intercropping and mixed cropping systems and crop combinations were advantageous over monocropping as they gave better land equivalent and benefit-cost ratio. This study provides meaningful findings in bridging the knowledge gap on locality specificity of the best cropping systems and maize/legume combination, for sustained production, locally and nationally. The contribution to the sustainable development goals (SDG), are multidimensional: The enhancement of food security through improved crop yields (SDG2); the promotion of agricultural practices that mitigate environmental degradation (SDG13) and lastly, advocating for biodiversity conservation through the adoption of sustainable cropping systems (SDG15).

Bi-cropping of castor bean and nutri-millets optimizes system productivity, energy efficiency, and carbon footprint in rainfed alfisols of semi-arid tropics

Intercropping enhances diversity, productivity, resilience, and soil health. To achieve these benefits of the intercropping system, drilling patterns and species mixture play a key role. Therefore, to optimize the productivity, profitability, energetics, and carbon footprint of the castor-based millet intercropping system, a field experiment was conducted for two consecutive kharif seasons (2020 − 2021 and 2021 − 2022) at the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka (India). The results revealed that all the crops under monoculture outperformed their intercropping system for seed and stalk/stover yield. Among the different cropping systems, castor + finger millet (2:4) showed highest castor equivalent yield (CEY; 1911 kg ha−1) due to excellent land utilization efficiency (LUE; 106%), land equivalent ratio (LER; 1.13), land equivalent co-efficient (LEC; 0.32) compared to other cropping systems. Castor + finger millet (2:4) was even found superior in terms of monetary returns. Finger millet monoculture showed the highest energy consumption (10,770 MJ ha−1), energy output (96,507 MJ ha−1), and also net energy gain (85,737 MJ ha−1) compared to other cropping systems. However, it was comparable with castor + finger millet (2:4) despite its modest energy consumption (10,530 MJ ha−1). Castor monoculture showed the highest carbon (C) emission (2045 kg CO2-eq. ha−1) and also C output (1760 kg CE ha−1). While, net C gain (1210 kg CE ha−1), C efficiency (3.39 kg kg−1 CE), and C stability index (2.39) were highest in the castor + finger millet intercropping system. Consequently, the adoption of a castor + finger millet (2:4) intercropping system will be a viable alternative for achieving enhanced system productivity, and energy efficiency with lower C-footprints under semi-arid regions.

Intercropped Maize and Cowpea Increased the Land Equivalent Ratio and Enhanced Crop Access to More Nitrogen and Phosphorus Compared to Cultivation as Sole Crops

Sub-Saharan African smallholder farmers face challenges due to limited access to commercial fertilizers, affecting food security. Exploring the benefits of intercropping is promising, but evaluating crop performance in specific agroecological contexts is crucial. This study in Vilankulo, Mozambique, conducted over two growth seasons (2018 and 2019), aimed to assess the benefits of intercropping maize (Zea mays L.) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L., Walp) (M+C) compared to maize (M) and cowpea (C) as sole crops. Key variables for comparison included dry matter yield (DMY), land equivalent ratio (LER), competitive ratio (CR), tissue nutrient concentration, nutrient recovery, and apparent N fixation (ANF). This study also examined the effects on cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.), cultivated as a succeeding crop, and soil properties. In 2018, maize plants were severely affected by drought and did not produce grain. This year, cowpea grain yields were 2.26 and 1.35 t ha−1 when grown as sole crop or intercropped. In 2019, maize grain yield was 6.75 t ha−1 when intercropped, compared to 5.52 t ha−1 as a sole crop. Cowpea grain yield was lower when intercropped (1.51 vs. 2.25 t ha−1). LER values exceeded 1 (1.91 and 1.53 for grain and straw in 2019), indicating improved performance in intercropping compared to sole crops. In 2019, CR was 1.96 for maize grain and 0.58 for cowpea grain, highlighting the higher competitiveness of maize over cowpea. Cowpea exhibited higher average leaf nitrogen (N) concentration (25.4 and 37.6 g kg−1 in 2018 and 2019, respectively) than maize (13.0 and 23.7 g kg−1), attributed to its leguminous nature with access to atmospheric N, benefiting the growth of maize in intercropping and cabbage cultivated as a succeeding crop. Cowpea also appears to have contributed to enhanced phosphorus (P) absorption, possibly due to access to sparingly soluble P forms. In 2019, ANF in M+C was 102.5 kg ha−1, over 4-fold higher than in C (25.0 g kg−1), suggesting maize accessed more N than could cowpea provide, possibly through association with endophytic diazotrophs commonly found in tropical grasses.

Peanut-based intercropping systems altered soil bacterial communities, potential functions, and crop yield.

Intercropping is an efficient land use and sustainable agricultural practice widely adopted worldwide. However, how intercropping influences the structure and function of soil bacterial communities is not fully understood. Here, the effects of five cropping systems (sole sorghum, sole millet, sole peanut, sorghum/peanut intercropping, and millet/peanut intercropping) on soil bacterial community structure and function were investigated using Illumina MiSeq sequencing. The results showed that integrating peanut into intercropping systems increased soil available nitrogen (AN) and total nitrogen (TN) content. The alpha diversity index, including Shannon and Chao1 indices, did not differ between the five cropping systems. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) illustrated a distinct separation in soil microbial communities among five cropping systems. Bacterial phyla, including Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Chloroflexi, were dominant across all cropping systems. Sorghum/peanut intercropping enhanced the relative abundance of phyla Actinobacteriota and Chloroflexi compared to the corresponding monocultures. Millet/peanut intercropping increased the relative abundance of Proteobacteria, Acidobacteriota, and Nitrospirota. The redundancy analysis (RDA) indicated that bacterial community structures were primarily shaped by soil organic carbon (SOC). The land equivalent ratio (LER) values for the two intercropping systems were all greater than one. Partial least squares path modeling analysis (PLS-PM) showed that soil bacterial community had a direct effect on yield and indirectly affected yield by altering soil properties. Our findings demonstrated that different intercropping systems formed different bacterial community structures despite sharing the same climate, reflecting changes in soil ecosystems caused by interspecific interactions. These results will provide a theoretical basis for understanding the microbial communities of peanut-based intercropping and guide agricultural practice.

Effect of Deficit Irrigation and Intercrop Competition on Productivity, Water Use Efficiency and Oil Quality of Chia in Semi-Arid Regions

Intercropping offers greater scope to introduce new crops. Cultivation of crops with diverse root architecture and different durations enhances the productivity of scarce resources like land and water. This study aimed to determine the effect of intercrop competition and irrigation regimes on yield, competition, land usage, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), and fatty acids of chia. The field experiment was conducted in semi-arid India during 2020–2022 with full (I100) and deficit irrigation (I50) and six intercrops. Results demonstrated that chia + fenugreek intercropping in I50 improved the crops’ competitiveness, land equivalent ratio (LER) (1.77), land use efficiency (142.5%), and the IWUE of chia (23.2%). Notably, a chia + radish/spinach system in I50 reduced the seed yield (42.6–45.0%) of chia over I100 monocropping. A chia + fenugreek system in I50 resulted in a higher seed yield (196.2 kg ha−1) than chia monocropping in I100. Further, chia + fenugreek intercropping resulted in higher omega-3 content (56.68%) under I100. Therefore, a chia + fenugreek system under I100 may be suggested over monocropping for better yield and oil quality. However, during water scarcity situations, growers can adopt a chia + fenugreek system under I50 which can give a similar chia equivalent yield and a higher LER and IWUE compared to chia monocropping under I100.