Environmental Land Research Articles

Description and evaluation of the JULES-ES set-up for ISIMIP2b

Abstract. Global studies of climate change impacts that use future climate model projections also require projections of land surface changes. Simulated land surface performance in Earth system models is often affected by the atmospheric models' climate biases, leading to errors in land surface projections. Here we run the Joint UK Land Environment Simulator Earth System configuration (JULES-ES) land surface model with the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project second-phase future projections (ISIMIP2b) bias-corrected climate model data from four global climate models (GCMs). The bias correction reduces the impact of the climate biases present in individual models. We evaluate the performance of JULES-ES against present-day observations to demonstrate its usefulness for providing required information for impacts such as fire and river flow. We include a standard JULES-ES configuration without fire as a contribution to ISIMIP2b and JULES-ES with fire as a potential future development. Simulations for gross primary productivity (GPP), evapotranspiration (ET) and albedo compare well against observations. Including fire improves the simulations, especially for ET and albedo and vegetation distribution, with some degradation in shrub cover and river flow. This configuration represents some of the most current Earth system science for land surface modelling. The suite associated with this configuration provides a basis for past and future phases of ISIMIP, providing a simulation set-up, postprocessing and initial evaluation, using the International Land Model Benchmarking (ILAMB) project. This suite ensures that it is as straightforward, reproducible and transparent as possible to follow the protocols and participate fully in ISIMIP using JULES.

Lipid Corona Formation on Micro- and Nanoplastic Particles Modulates Uptake and Toxicity in A549 Cells.

Plastic waste is a global issue leaving no continents unaffected. In the environment, ultraviolet radiation and shear forces in water and land contribute to generating micro- and nanoplastic particles (MNPP), which organisms can easily take up. Plastic particles enter the human food chain, and the accumulation of particles within the human body is expected. Crossing epithelial barriers and cellular uptake of MNPP involves the interaction of plastic particles with lipids. To this end, we generated unilamellar vesicles from POPC (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine) and POPS (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine) and incubated them with pristine, carboxylated, or aminated polystyrene spheres (about 1 µm in diameter) to generate lipid coronas around the particles. Lipid coronas enhanced the average particle sizes and partially changed the MNPP zeta potential and polydispersity. In addition, lipid coronas led to significantly enhanced uptake of MNPP particles but not their cytotoxicity, as determined by flow cytometry. Finally, adding proteins to lipid corona nanoparticles further modified MNPP uptake by reducing the uptake kinetics, especially in pristine and carboxylated plastic samples. In conclusion, our study demonstrates for the first time the impact of different types of lipids on differently charged MNPP particles and the biological consequences of such modifications to better understand the potential hazards of plastic exposure.

Combining local model calibration with the emergent constraint approach to reduce uncertainty in the tropical land carbon cycle feedback

Abstract. The role of the land carbon cycle in climate change remains highly uncertain. A key source of the projection spread is related to the assumed response of photosynthesis to warming, especially in the tropics. The optimum temperature for photosynthesis determines whether warming positively or negatively impacts photosynthesis, thereby amplifying or suppressing CO2 fertilisation of photosynthesis under CO2-induced global warming. Land carbon cycle models have been extensively calibrated against local eddy flux measurements, but this has not previously been clearly translated into a reduced uncertainty in terms of how the tropical land carbon sink will respond to warming. Using a previous parameter perturbation ensemble carried out with version 3 of the Hadley Centre coupled climate–carbon cycle model (HadCM3C), we identify an emergent relationship between the optimal temperature for photosynthesis, which is especially relevant in tropical forests, and the projected amount of atmospheric CO2 at the end of the century. We combine this with a constraint on the optimum temperature for photosynthesis, derived from eddy covariance measurements using the adjoint of the Joint UK Land Environment Simulator (JULES) land surface model. Taken together, the emergent relationship from the coupled model and the constraint on the optimum temperature for photosynthesis define an emergent constraint on future atmospheric CO2 in the HadCM3C coupled climate–carbon cycle under a common emissions scenario (A1B). The emergent constraint sharpens the probability density of simulated CO2 change (2100–1900) and moves its peak to a lower value of 497 ± 91 compared to 607 ± 128 ppmv (parts per million by volume) when using the equal-weight prior. Although this result is likely to be model and scenario dependent, it demonstrates the potential of combining the large-scale emergent constraint approach with a parameter estimation using detailed local measurements.

Impacts of offshore oil spill accidents on island bird communities: A test run study around Orkney and Svalbard archipelagos

The sea area around the Orkney archipelago, Scotland is subjected to substantial maritime shipping activities. By contract, the Svalbard archipelago, Norway currently has a rather low marine traffic profile. Future projections, however, indicate that the Trans-Arctic route might change the whole transportation picture and Svalbard may be at the centre of maritime activities. Both archipelagos have sensitive environmental resources at sea and inland, including bird communities. There are, for instance, 13 Red Listed species present in Orkney and 2 in Svalbard. In this regard, it is important to address oil spill risks along existing and projected shipping routes. Hypothetical spills were simulated in twelve scenarios for both the Orkney and Svalbard archipelagos with the OpenDrift open-source software. The results indicate risks to seabird communities. For Orkney, the spills resulted in the most extensive contamination of the sea and land environments in autumn. For Svalbard, autumn spills on the contrary presented the lowest risk to seabirds. Based on the simulations, we recommend increased caution for shipping activities in the problematic seasons, improved local readiness for ship accidents and sufficient pre-incident planning.

Transparent, self-adhesive, highly environmental stable, and water-resistant ionogel enabled reliable strain/temperature sensors and underwater communicators

Electronic skins have gained considerable attentions for their promising applications in flexible and wearable electronics. Nevertheless, it remains challenging to realize high performance underwater sensing due to the great differences between the aquatic environment and the land environment. Herein, we developed hydrophobic ionogel consisting of hydrophobic polymer network and ionic liquid with high transparency, good stretchability, temperature-dependent ionic conductivity, long-term environmental stability, and excellent adhesion property. These merits enabled the ionogel-based sensor to be employed as strain and temperature sensor, exhibiting excellent sensing performance, such as wide strain range (0.05−250%), rapid response (100 ms), good durability, broad operating temperature window (−60−100 °C), and high-precision thermosensation (0.05 °C). More interestingly, the superior water-resistance ability of the ionogel endowed the ion-conducting gels with tremendous sensing performance in aqueous environment, performing as a wearable sensor for underwater communication and aquatic animals research.

Bringing to Light the Potential of Angular Nighttime Composites for Monitoring Human Activities in the Brazilian Legal Amazon

The Brazilian Legal Amazon (BLA) is the largest administrative unit in Brazil. The region has undergone a series of territorial policies that have led to specific conditions of occupation of the land and particular urban environments. This plurality expresses specific physical relations with the environment and infrastructure, which require innovative methods for detecting and profiling human settlements in this region. The aim of this work is to demonstrate how angular composites of nighttime lights can be associated with specific profiles of urban infrastructure, sociodemographic parameters, and mining sites present in the BLA. We make use of sets of yearly VNP46A4 angular composites specifically associated with the narrowest ranges of observations across the year, i.e., observations right below the sensor’s pathway (near-nadir range) and observations in between the oblique range (off-nadir), to identify urban typologies that expose the presence of structures such as vertical buildings, industrial sites, and areas with different income levels. Through a non-parametric evaluation of the simple difference in radiance values ranging from 2012 to 2021, followed by an ordinary least squares regression (OLS), we find that off-nadir values are persistently higher than near-nadir values except in areas where obstructing structures and particular anisotropic characteristics are present, generally changing trends of the so-called angular effect. We advocate that relational metrics can be extracted from the angular annual composites to provide additional information on the current urban structural state. By calculating the simple difference (DIF), the relative difference (REL), and the residual values of the linear regression formula estimated for the off-nadir and near-nadir composites (RES), it is possible to differentiate urban environments by their physical aspects, such as high-mid income areas, low-income settlements with different levels of density, industrial sites, and verticalized areas. Moreover, pixels that were exclusively found in one of the angular composites could be spatially associated with phenomena such as the overglow effect for the exclusive off-nadir samples and with the wetlands of the northwest portion of the Amazon Forest for the near-nadir samples. This work deepens our current understanding of how to optimize the use of the VNP46A4 angular series for monitoring human activities in the Amazon biome and provides further directions on research possibilities concerning nighttime light angular composites.

Analysis of Spatial-Temporal Changes and Driving Forces of Desertification in the Mu Us Sandy Land from 1991 to 2021

Desertification is one of the most critical environmental and socioeconomic issues in the world today. Located in the transitional region between the desert and the Loess Plateau, the Mu Us Sandy Land is one of the nine most environmentally sensitive areas in the world. Remote sensing provides an effective technical method for desertification monitoring. In order to analyze the spatiotemporal distribution of desertification in the Mu Us Sandy Land from 1991 to 2021, the “MSAVI-Albedo” model was employed to extract desertification data in 1991, 2002, 2009 and 2021. The clustering characteristics of desertification were analyzed based on Moran’s I statistic. Subsequently, the driving forces in desertification changes were investigated using a geographical detector to analyze the influence of soil, meteorology, and topography on desertification. Additionally, the impact of meteorological and human factors on desertification change in the Mu Us Sandy Land was assessed. From 1991 to 2021, the degree of desertification of the Mu Us Sandy Land showed an overall decreasing trend, and the percentage of land classified as undergoing extremely severe, severe, moderate and mild desertification was improved by 86.11%, 81.82%, 52.5% and 37.42%, respectively. The proportion of land classified as undergoing extremely severe desertification decreased from 29.22% to 5.62%, and the proportion of land undergoing no desertification increased from 4.16% to 18.33%. At the same time, the desertification center shifted westward, and the desertification distribution showed a clustering trend. It is known that different factors affect the formation and distribution of desertification in the Mu Us Sandy Land in the following order: soil, meteorology, and topography. Over the past 30 years, the mean annual temperature and annual precipitation increased at rates of 0.01871 °C/a and 1.0374 mm/a, respectively, while the mean annual wind speed decreased at a rate of 0.00945 m/s·a. These changes provided more favorable natural conditions for vegetation growth and sand fixation. Human factors, such as economic development, agriculture and animal husbandry practices, and the policy of returning farmland to forest (grassland) also had a significant impact on the desertification process, leading to a year-by-year improvement in the ecological environment of the Mu Us Sandy Land.

Flight Control Method Using Neural Network in Prediction for Suppressing Ship Airwake Impact in Carrier Landing

Ship airwake is an important factor affecting the accurate carrier landing of carrier-based aircraft. To suppress the effects from airwake, this paper presents a flight control method using neural network prediction. Different from most studies focusing on improving the adaptability of the flight control methods, the emphasis of the research is placed on modelling the effects of the ship airwake in the carrier landing environment pertinently and reflecting the effects in the control model. From a large amount of carrier landing flight data, the impact of airwake on the landing control can be extracted and summarized into models based on neural network algorithm. Then the airwake impact in the next period of time can be predicted. A flight control law is designed combining the predicting model of airwake impact with model predictive control. The simulation demonstrated that the presented method can reduce the trajectory deviation influenced by airwake and decrease the touchdown dispersions.

ROLE OF SOCIAL WORK IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: TOWARDS ECO-SOCIAL PRACTICE

A social work is a profession in which works and tasks are performed by utilising available resources from social environment namely social networks and support system that enhances humans to thrive and excel their lives. However, in the current trends there are some drawbacks in the manner of work such as very limited engagement of social organisation that focuses on environmental aspects and sustainable ecology. As a consequence, social work has to develop theoretical framework to incorporate ecological environment because man and environment are crucial and mutual dependence components. In the existing ecological hardship, climate change is a matter of concern as it regulates the land fertility and biodiversity to achieve sustainable food productions, cycle of energy and water resources. The ill effects of climate change are unbearable by all, for instances people of Flanders in Belgium with enormous wealth had to face challenges in shrinking free land spaces, environment pollutions and many health issues. And as mentioned by the United Nations Development Programme these crises are mostly affected by the poor people which sets a wide gap between the rich and the poor in both the ecological and economic crises. All of these present major challenges to the social work despite of keeping social justice as central core of frame work.

Bioplastic: an eco‐friendly alternative to non‐biodegradable plastic

AbstractThe accumulation of non‐biodegradable plastic waste in land and aquatic environments is expanding every day. According to data collected from various scientific reports, about 100–250 megatonnes of plastic waste arrives in the oceans annually. According to the Central Control Board of India (2019–2020), India produces about 3.5 million metric tonnes of plastic waste annually, while only 5–10% of the produced waste is recycled. The non‐recycled plastic waste dumped into the environment either goes to landfills or directly goes to the sea, which disrupts the marine life of the ocean. We are highly dependent on plastic at household and industrial scales. Removal of plastic waste and lowering the use of hazardous and non‐biodegradable plastics are the main challenges. Researchers and industrialists have come up with many ideas to lower the generation of non‐biodegradable plastic waste and found that reusability is easier than degradability, while the use of bioplastics is the ultimate solution to tackle the plastic waste problem. Hence, developing eco‐friendly alternative plastics without compromising physicochemical and mechanical properties is the need of the hour. An eco‐friendly alternative to conventional or petrochemical plastics is bioplastics, which are environmentally safe, and reduce our dependency on fossil reserves. Therefore, this review focuses on eco‐friendly bioplastics as an efficient alternative to non‐biodegradable plastics. Among renewable and sustainable feedstocks available, vegetable oils are the most suitable resource for bioplastic production because of their renewability and economical nature. Hence, this study concluded that polyurethane‐based polymers from vegetable oils are inherently more eco‐friendly than most other plastics. © 2023 Society of Industrial Chemistry.

Tikanga and the Law Wānanga

Tikanga Māori is increasingly influencing the law of New Zealand, in every jurisdiction. The Environment Court is becoming more concerned with issues which necessitate knowledge of different tikanga Māori, matauranga Māori and Te Reo Māori. The following is a discussion on how tikanga affects the incorporation of Treaty of Waitangi and Māori concepts in the Resource Management Act 1991. It then moves to how and to what extent the Environment Court can consider relational and mana whenua issues. And lastly, Judge Doogan gives insights from a Māori Land Court, Waitangi Tribunal and Environment Court judge for practitioners on understanding tikanga issues and working with Māori collectives.
 Keywords: Environment Court; Māori Land Court; Waitangi Tribunal; Resource Management Act 1991; Lex Aotearoa; Te Reo; tikanga; mātauranga; mana whenua; procedure; advocacy.

Regeneration among animals: An evolutionary hypothesis related to aquatic versus terrestrial environment

The present hypothesis tries to explain animal regeneration in relation to the life cycles and environment of different animals. Regeneration is a basic phenomenon present since the origin of life in the sea, as testimonial in lower or more complex extant marine animals. Aquatic animals that evolved an indirect development, forming larvae and transiting into the adult stage through metamorphosis, use gene networks present in their genome for these transformations. In case of injury or organ loss as adults, they can re-utilize most or part of the gene networks previously activated during larval growth and metamorphosis. In contrast, terrestrial animals that evolved life cycles with the elimination of larvae and metamorphosis for the adaptation to land conditions lost some of the genes implicated in these post-developmental processes and consequently also the ability to regenerate. Few arthropods and lizards are capable to form hydrated regenerative blastemas with a similar consistence of embryonic tissues. The present hypothesis submits that regeneration cannot be activated in the dry land environment and consequently was largely or completely abolished in terrestrial animals. After injury or organ loss, nematodes, most arthropods and terrestrial vertebrates can only form scars or a limited healing or regengrow in juveniles. This is a process where somatic growth is superimposed to wound healing so that the apparent regeneration derives from the combination from both processes. When full growth is terminated these terrestrial animals can only heal by scarring.

Genome-wide analysis of the GDSL esterase/lipase family genes in Physcomitrium patens and the involvement of GELP31 in spore germination.

In plants, the ability to produce hydrophobic substances that would provide protection from dehydration was required for the transition to land. This genome-wide investigation outlines the evolution of GDSL-type esterase/lipase (GELP) proteins in the moss Physcomitrium patens and suggests possible functions of some genes. GELP proteins play roles in the formation of hydrophobic polymers such as cutin and suberin that protect against dehydration and pathogen attack. GELP proteins are also implicated in processes such as pollen development and seed metabolism and germination. The P. patens GELP gene family comprises 48 genes and 14 pseudogenes. Phylogenetic analysis of all P. patens GELP sequences along with vascular plant GELP proteins with reported functions revealed that the P. patens genes clustered within previously identified A, B and C clades. A duplication model predicting the expansion of the GELP gene family within the P. patens lineage was constructed. Expression analysis combined with phylogenetic analysis suggested candidate genes for functions such as defence against pathogens, cutin metabolism, spore development and spore germination. The presence of relatively fewer GELP genes in P. patens may reduce the occurrence of functional redundancy that complicates the characterization of vascular plant GELP genes. Knockout lines of GELP31, which is highly expressed in sporophytes, were constructed. Gelp31 spores contained amorphous oil bodies and germinated late, suggesting (a) role(s) of GELP31 in lipid metabolism in spore development or germination. Future knockout studies of other candidate GELP genes will further elucidate the relationship between expansion of the family and the ability to withstand the harsh land environment.

Shoreline change dynamics along the Augusta coast, eastern Sicily, South Italy

AbstractThe coastal region of Augusta, eastern Sicily, Italy, is a densely populated zone, where human pressures profoundly shaped the coastal and land dynamics. So far, understanding the interaction between natural and human processes in modelling coastal geomorphology is still quite challenging. However, coastal and environmental monitoring poses the bases for managing coastal areas properly. Therefore, the aim of this research was first to understand the medium‐term shoreline changes along Augusta Bay between 1972 and 2021, and then assess the main local coastal modifications determined by the increasing coastal armouring. To do so, the shorelines dataset was extracted from Landsat and Sentinel‐2 satellite imageries using the NDWI and mNDWI methods and then statistical parameters were computed using Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS). Results show that this coastal fringe experienced significant shoreline recession over the studied time interval. Negative shoreline shifts are higher in correspondence with torrent deltas, as a result of the increasing human and natural forces insisting on the land and coastal environments. Since 1970s, Augusta Bay registered a significant increase in artificial coastal length and a coastal armouring index of Maximal level was reached today.

Using geospatial data to identify land grabbing. Detecting spatial reconfigurations during the implementation of the Nacala Development Corridor in Mozambique with remote sensing and land conflicts databases

ABSTRACT The contemporary food system pushes agriculture to a globalized value-chain, affecting landscapes, resource access, and institutional arrangements. Institutions operating in Africa adopt development corridors to integrate multisector investments and induce export-driven primary sector, leading to massive land deals, also known as land-grabbing. Organizations struggle to monitor land deals accurately, lacking spatial precision and contextual information for affected communities. This research examines Mozambique's Nacala Corridor, using geospatial data as a tool to detect spatial (re)configurations due to exported-oriented policies and infrastructure. Data from land conflicts databases (Land Matrix and Environmental Justice) were analyzed with remote sensing Landsat and MODIS imagery using multiple indexes, an EVI time series, and the application of the LandTrendr algorithm. The results show that the temporal and spatial analysis of remote-sensing data is in line with the major political and economic dynamics of the region. Hotspots of land cover changes were detected in the same areas where land grabbing were reported; however, reported and detected land areas did not coincide. Temporal analysis showed that institutional changes played a greater role in triggering land use changes than infrastructure implementation. We conclude that land cover modifications, conflicts, and spatial development initiatives follows policies and institutional arrangements targeting international investments.

Lost in the Deep?

Computing research is increasingly addressing underwater environments and examining how computing can support diving and other activities. Unlike on land, where well-established positioning methods are widely available, underwater environments lack a common positioning mechanism, which is a prerequisite for many applications. Dead reckoning, the use of angle and distance estimates to track position changes from a known point of origin, is a promising candidate for underwater positioning as it does not rely on wireless signals (which decay rapidly in underwater environments) and as there is a wide range of literature and algorithms freely available. Yet, currently it is unclear whether the existing techniques can be adopted in underwater environments or whether the differences in medium and environment affect the performance of the dead reckoning techniques. We contribute by evaluating and systematically analyzing the performance and trade-offs associated with dead reckoning techniques in underwater environments. We present AEOLUS, a prototype unit comprising of a low-cost microcontroller and inertial measurement unit, to perform experiments on the ground and in underwater environments to assess how well the performance of different techniques translates from ground-based use cases to underwater environments. We benchmark 15 different algorithms and compare their performance in such environments to identify common patterns and dissimilarities, and identify root causes for these differences. The results show that displacement and turn errors can be estimated to within 5% error but that the best performing methods vary between land and underwater environments. We also show that the performance depends on the shape of the motion patterns with some algorithms performing better for hard turns whereas others perform better for gradual, more continuous turns.

Assessing eco-environmental service quality by integrating monitoring data: A case study of Northeast China

As a pressing global concern, conducting the assessment of eco-environmental service quality is being sought via several new innovative approaches. Although existing studies do propose methods for assessing the quality of the eco-environment, they generally lack an integrated consideration of resource endowment and the contamination of eco-environmental elements. Guided by previous studies, this paper constructs an integrated index of eco-environmental service quality (ESQI) based on multi-source monitoring data in four dimensions of water, land, air, and vegetation, providing a new approach to assessing eco-environmental service quality. We quantified the ESQI of 182 counties in Northeast China and revealed its associated spatial-temporal features using mathematical methods and GIS-based spatial analysis techniques. The ESQI was empirically tested and found to be comprehensive, valid, and accurate. The results show that the ESQI in Northeast China has declined slightly overall from 2005 to 2018, with a decreasing spatial trend from north to south, and higher ESQI in the northern, eastern, border, and coastal areas. The counties with high ESQI were mostly concentrated around the Lesser Khingan Range–Changbai Mountains, while those with low ESQI were almost entirely concentrated in the central and western areas, with the greatest disparity arising among the counties in Liaoning Province. In terms of sub-environments, the quality of the vegetation environment generally improved, the quality of the land environment was unchanged, while the quality of the water and air environment decreased overall. The authors argue that more attention should be paid to gradually strengthening the construction of comprehensive eco-environmental monitoring networks in cities, counties, key townships, and villages. Specific measures should be implemented targeting those areas with varying ESQI to address their practical issues of water, land, air, and vegetation, with a view towards achieving coordinated efforts for improving the quality of eco-environment services.

Reduced-order digital twin and latent data assimilation for global wildfire prediction

Abstract. The occurrence of forest fires can impact vegetation in the ecosystem, property, and human health but also indirectly affect the climate. The Joint UK Land Environment Simulator – INteractive Fire and Emissions algorithm for Natural envirOnments (JULES-INFERNO) is a global land surface model, which simulates vegetation, soils, and fire occurrence driven by environmental factors. However, this model incurs substantial computational costs due to the high data dimensionality and the complexity of differential equations. Deep-learning-based digital twins have an advantage in handling large amounts of data. They can reduce the computational cost of subsequent predictive models by extracting data features through reduced-order modelling (ROM) and then compressing the data to a low-dimensional latent space. This study proposes a JULES-INFERNO-based digital twin fire model using ROM techniques and deep learning prediction networks to improve the efficiency of global wildfire predictions. The iterative prediction implemented in the proposed model can use current-year data to predict fires in subsequent years. To avoid the accumulation of errors from the iterative prediction, latent data assimilation (LA) is applied to the prediction process. LA manages to efficiently adjust the prediction results to ensure the stability and sustainability of the prediction. Numerical results show that the proposed model can effectively encode the original data and achieve accurate surrogate predictions. Furthermore, the application of LA can also effectively adjust the bias of the prediction results. The proposed digital twin also runs 500 times faster for online predictions than the original JULES-INFERNO model without requiring high-performance computing (HPC) clusters.

E-trikes for urban delivery: An empirical mixed-fleet simulation approach to assess city logistics sustainability

Increasing urbanization has resulted in changes in land use, environment, demographics, and consumer behavior. These changes have magnified the challenges of city logistics. In particular, last-mile delivery freight has become a growing challenge for sustainable cities. Despite numerous studies on last-mile delivery solutions, little attention has been given to assessing the performance of e-cargo in mixed fleet systems. This study's contribution lies in its empirical monitoring and evaluation of e-trike performance for two months and parameterization of a citywide simulation. We demonstrated how GPS data coupled with publicly available data can be used to develop various performance indicators and provided comparison between real-world data and the Google Distance Matrix API. Furthermore, we estimated the costs if the company used vans (all or a mixed fleet) for the same e-trike deliveries. The costs associated with an e-trike-based delivery system are not dramatically higher than those associated with traditional methods. Labor costs were found to be the primary factor influencing cost trade-offs. However, emissions costs are reduced to a large extent supporting sustainability initiatives of the system. This proposed approach can be generalized to evaluate alternative vehicle types that simultaneously change vehicle form factor and performance and fuel types.

Impact of particulate pollution on aquatic invertebrates

A serious global problem, air pollution poses a risk to both human and environmental health. It contains hazardous material like heavy metals, nanoparticles, and others that can create an impact on both land and marine environments. Particulate pollutants, which can enter water systems through a variety of ways, including precipitation and industrial runoff, can have a particularly adverse influence on aquatic invertebrates. Once in the water, these particles can harm aquatic invertebrates physically, physiologically, and molecularly, resulting in developmental problems and multi-organ toxicity. Further research at the cellular and molecular levels in numerous locations of the world is necessary to completely understand the impacts of particle pollution on aquatic invertebrates. Understanding how particle pollution affects aquatic invertebrates is vital as the significance of ecotoxicological studies on particulate contaminants increases. This review gives a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of how particle pollution affects aquatic invertebrates.