Land-based Sources Of Marine Pollution Research Articles

Finding equitable solutions to the land-based sources of marine plastic pollution: Sovereignty as a double-edged sword

Marine litter is a global and transboundary pollution problem. Recent attention has focused on the impact of this issue on areas beyond national jurisdiction. In many cases, marine litter is traced to a coastal State where debris have been released into the sea. Effective and legally-binding commitments at the global level to tackle land-based sources of marine pollution are rare, in large part because of the sensitive nature of territorial sovereignty. When it comes to addressing the marine plastics crisis, sovereignty is a double-edged sword. On the one hand, the international legal regime traditionally addressing marine litter, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, does not specifically respond to, and is not able to adequately address, the issue of plastics as a land-based source of marine pollution. While it contributes to social equity by recognizing the special position of developing States in terms of capacity and need for economic development, this deference to domestic decisions is not conducive to the adoption of binding and global standards. Since a large majority of plastics in the oceans originate from land, this weakness is a major concern. On the other hand, sovereignty might contribute to a solution within the regime regulating trade in waste products: unilateral actions taken in application of sovereign powers and aimed at reducing trade in plastic waste led to major multilateral actions with the potential to reduce the issue of marine plastic pollution. In recent times, the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and their Disposal has indeed become an important forum to respond to the plastic waste issue, with the potential to contribute to a solution to the marine dimension of this crisis. This regime is not perfect, especially in that its complexity and reliance on enforcement at the customs level leave ample opportunities for criminal activities to flourish. Areas for improvement include addressing the legal uncertainty regarding bilateral, regional, and multilateral agreements as well as certain key definitions; strengthening the prior informed consent procedure and the Mechanism for Promoting Implementation and Compliance; and heavily investing in capacity building and technology transfer. Nonetheless, this regime provides a widely-ratified framework to decrease trade in plastic waste considered hazardous or requiring special consideration – these two categories cover most hard-to-recycle plastics. In that sense, the Basel Convention regime has the potential to reduce mismanaged plastic waste leaking into the oceans and to contribute to social equity between States–if not domestically–by reducing the practice of wealthy countries using developing States as dumping grounds under the pretense of mutually beneficial trade in waste products.

Application of the Principle of Prevention to land-based sources of marine pollution: an International Law approach

Despite being a major environmental issue, marine pollution of onshore origin has not been addressed through a clear and coherent international legal framework. The aim of this article is, therefore, to reconduct such fragmented framework to a single international rule, with the potential of effectively facing the issue. This led the investigation to focus on the Principle of Prevention, which, despite being a cornerstone of international environmental law, has remained quite evanescent as to its normative content. With this in mind, the article attempts to reconstruct the actual content of the rule with specific regard to the issue at stake. In order to do so, it has been essential to identify the standard of “diligence” States are held to in such regard and to verify how such “due diligence” interacts with the primary rule and contributes to fill it with normative content. The result is a single legal rule with a renewed potential, especially in terms of enforcement opportunities.

Land-based sources of marine pollution: Pesticides, PAHs and phthalates in coastal stream water, and heavy metals in coastal stream sediments in American Samoa

The island nations and territories of the South Pacific are facing a number of pressing environmental concerns, including solid waste management and coastal pollution. Here we provide baseline information on the presence and concentration of heavy metals and selected organic contaminants (pesticides, PAHs, phthalates) in 7 coastal streams and in surface waters adjacent to the Futiga landfill in American Samoa. All sampled stream sediments contained high concentrations of lead, and some of mercury. Several coastal stream waters showed relatively high concentrations of diethyl phthalate and of organophosphate pesticides, above chronic toxicity values for fish and other aquatic organisms. Parathion, which has been banned by the US Environmental Protection Agency since 2006, was detected in several stream sites. Increased monitoring and initiatives to limit non-point source land-based pollution will greatly improve the state of freshwater and coastal resources, as well as reduce risks to human health in American Samoa.

Management of land-based sources of marine pollution

The coastal waters of Kuwait Bay have been extensively used for the disposal of domestic wastewater, increasing the level of pollution. Recent studies indicated that the amount of waste discharged into Kuwait Bay is expected to grow further, from raw sewage, illegal disposal of partially treated sewage, and industrial waste. These sources play significant roles in heavy metal, hydrocarbon, and fecal coliform bacteria inputs to Kuwait's coastal waters, which impact the marine environment and lower water quality. This article introduces information relating to pollution levels in Kuwait's marine environment from land-based sources, and compares the level of pollutants in marine waters with water quality standards. This study also recommends an environmental waste management procedure to control waste discharges to the marine environment with a view to future aspects of sustainable development.

Ship Ballast Water Management in Turkish Ports and Waterways

AbstractThe introduction of invasive marine species into a new environment by ballast water attached to ship hulls has been identified as one of the four greatest threats to the world’s oceans. The other three are land-based sources of marine pollution, overexploitation of living marine resources, and physical alteration/destruction of marine habitat. Ballast is any material used to add weight to balance an object. One example includes the sandbags carried on conventional hot air balloons, which can be discarded to lighten the balloon’s load, allowing it to ascend. Ballast water is water carried by ships to ensure stability, trim, and structural integrity. Shipping moves over 80% of the world’s commodities and transfers approximately 3‐5 billion tons of ballast water internationally each year. A similar volume may also be transferred domestically within countries and regions each year. Ballast water is absolutely essential to the safe and efficient operation of modern shipping, providing balance and stability to unladen ships. However, it may also pose a serious ecological, economical, and health threat to the marine environment.Turkey is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in western Asia and southeastern Europe. Turkey is surrounded by three seas: the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Aegean Sea. The Turkish straits that separate Europe and Asia are one of the busiest waterways of the world. Turkey has several ports and berthing facilities. The number of ships coming to ports or passing through the straits has been increasing in the last decade. Half of these ships are carrying ballast water. Turkey has not ratified the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM) as yet but will soon prepare ballast water strategies. This paper discusses two different topics: ship ballast water management strategies and treatment technologies. The authors recommend the best strategies for prevention of ship ballast water pollution in the Turkish straits and ports.

Assessment of the eutrophication status of transitional, coastal and marine waters within OSPAR

Eutrophication (nutrient enrichment and subsequent processes) and its adverse ecosystem effects have been discussed as main issues over the last 20 years in international conferences and conventions for the protection of the marine environment such as the North Sea Conferences and the 1992 OSPAR Convention (OSPAR; which combined and updated the 1972 Oslo Convention on dumping waste at the sea and the 1974 Paris Convention on land-based sources of marine pollution). OSPAR committed itself to reduce phosphorus and nitrogen inputs (in the order of 50% compared with 1985) into the marine areas and ‘to combat eutrophication to achieve, by the year 2010, a healthy marine environment where eutrophication does not occur’. Within OSPAR, the Comprehensive Procedure (COMPP) has been developed and used to assess the eutrophication status of the OSPAR maritime area in an harmonised way. This is based on classification in terms of the following types of areas Non-Problem Areas (no effects), Potential Problem Areas (not enough data to assess effects) and Problem Areas (effects due to elevated nutrients and/or due to transboundary transport from adjacent areas). The COMPP consists of a set of harmonised assessment criteria with their area-specific assessment levels and an integrated area classification approach. The criteria cover all aspects of nutrient enrichment (nutrient inputs, concentrations and ratios) as well as possible direct effects (e.g. increased levels of nuisance and/or toxic phytoplankton species, shifts and/or losses of submerged aquatic vegetation) and indirect effects (e.g. oxygen deficiency, changes and/or death of benthos, death of fish, algal toxins). The COMPP also includes supporting environmental factors. It takes account of synergies and harmonisation with the EC Water Framework Directive, and has formed a major basis for the EC eutrophication guidance. Recently, additional components, such as total nitrogen, total phosphorus and transboundary transports have been included in the assessment of, e.g. the German Bight. The second application of the COMPP resulting in an update of the eutrophication status of the OSPAR maritime area will be finalised in 2008, and will include the agreed integrated set of Ecological Quality Objectives (EcoQOs) with respect to eutrophication.

Land-based sources of marine pollution: organochlorine pesticides in stream systems.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been dispersed ubiquitously in the environment. Bottom sediments act as sinks for these compounds and their concentrations often reflect the degree of anthropogenic pollution. This study was designed to evaluate the occurrence and distribution of OCPs in superficial streambed sediments and their relation to land use in two creeks that contribute to the coastal pollution of the southeastern region of Argentina. Sampling sites were selected by a combination of land use and stream type. Las Brusquitas creek, which passes through vast agricultural areas, and La Tapera creek which originates in a natural wetland and passes through horticultural farming and urban areas. OCPs quantification was carried out by GC-ECD. Results showed similar total OCP concentrations in sediments from both creeks in the range of 6-25 ng/g dry wt. However, when OCPs were expressed in ng/g total organic carbon (TOC), La Tapera creek presented 4-fold higher total levels as a consequence of a higher OCP input during the recent past in that watershed. La Tapera outfall showed 4-fold higher levels than that seen in Las Brusquitas, although both values were below the sediment quality criteria demanded to protect wildlife. Sigmaendosulfans, sigmaDDTs and sigmachlordanes were the main OCP group in all samples, with Endosulfan sulfate being the most frequent and abundant compound. The predominance of metabolites with respect to parent compounds suggests a contamination mainly by runoff from aged and weathered agricultural soils. Despite OCPs being banned, they still exist in creek sediments from the studied region, representing continuous contributions of land-based source contaminants to the marine environment. Future research on OCP levels in suspended sediments is recommended in order to determine the total OCP concentrations in the selected stream systems.

A review of marine pollution issues in the Caribbean

Marine pollution and coastal degradation have become serious development issues in the Caribbean. Early evidence of marine pollution was mainly anecdotal, but within the last 10--15 years, work conducted by universities and research institutions in the Region has provided the beginnings of a database that identifies several common marine pollution problems. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and the Pan American World Health Organization (PAHO/WHO) have also been instrumental in co-ordinating several marine pollution studies. In the English-speaking Caribbean, the University of the West Indies, the Institute of Marine Affairs in Trinidad and Tobago, and the Caribbean Environmental Health Institute located in St Lucia, have taken a lead role in identifying marine pollution problems in their Sub-Region. For the Wider Caribbean a database for petroleum pollution and marine debris has been developed. Land-based sources of marine pollution have been identified as a major problem, with several ‘hot spots’ identified in mainland countries and in some of the larger industrialised islands. Organic and nutrient pollution, particularly from sewage, is most widespread and is possibly the most serious marine pollution problem in the Caribbean. A lack of capital investment funds to install the appropriate infrastructure to deal with sewage and other liquid effluents is a major stumbling block to solving the problem of marine pollution in the Caribbean. Other factors include political will and administrative and legal structures to regulate human development activities.

Some recent regulatory developments in IMO for which there are corresponding requirements in the United Nations convention on the law of the sea. A challenge to be met by the states parties?

The paper highlights current developments within the International Maritime Organisation and elsewhere in the UN system on a number of issues on which corresponding requirements may be found in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982, at the same time questioning as to whether Parties to the latter fully realise that they have an obligation under several articles of the convention to adopt laws and regulations which “shall at least have the same effect as that of generally accepted rules and standards established through the competent international organisation or general diplomatic conference”. The first issue highlighted in the paper, is the action taken by IMO to extend Port State Control to operational requirements under the SOLAS 1974 and Marpol 73/78 Conventions, together with the steps taken to clarify and consolidate Port State Control procedures as contained in IMO Assembly resolution A.787(19) adopted in November 1995. The second issue highlighted, concerns current consideration, in particular within IMO and the 1972 London Convention, relating to Article 208 of the UN Convention that calls for the establishment, inter alia, of global rules, etc, to prevent, reduce and control pollution arising from sea-bed activities subject to national jurisdiction. Thirdly, the paper refers to the Washington Declaration and Global Programme of Action adopted by the Intergovernmental Conference convened by UNEP in Washington DC in October/November 1995, particularly the intention of government representatives present at the conference to develop a global, legally binding instrument in respect of persistent organic pollutants identified in decision 18/32 of the Governing Council of UNEP, this being relevant to Article 207(4) of the UN Convention relating to land-based sources of marine pollution.

U.S. and Europe boost chemical cooperation

Cooperation between the U.S. and Europe be boosted in more than 150 policy areas—many affecting the chemical industry and environmental protection—by a pact signed last week in Madrid. At a summit meeting, U.S. and European Union (EU) leaders adopted a political declaration, the New Transatlantic Agenda, and a 21-page action plan to implement it. The agenda has broad goals, including promoting peace and democracy, responding to global challenges, and expanding world trade. But the pact also calls for the U.S. and EU to cooperate on exchanging information and reporting on global environmental issues—such as climate change, biodiversity, and stratospheric ozone depletion. In addition, the countries promise to reduce land-based sources of marine pollution and to encourage sustainable management of forests. Specifically affecting the chemical industry is a provision that the U.S. and EU will work together to exchange ... sensitive information for the preclearance of shipments of essential and precurso...

The United States Coral Reef Initiative: an overview of the first steps

M.P. Crosby, S.F. Drake, C.M. Eakin, N.B. Fanning, A. Paterson, P. R. Taylor, J. Wilson Introduction The United States, along with many other nations, is con- cerned that the health of coral reefs and related ecosystems is deteriorating rapidly all over the world. Agenda 21, the final document of the 1992 Earth Summit, identifies corm reefs as ecosystems of great biodiversity and production to be accorded high priority for protection, and calls for an integrated management approach for their protection and sustainable use. The call by scientific, management and environmental advocacy communities for action towards a coordinated strategy for coral reef research and manage- ment has grown dramatically in recent years (i. e. Coral Reefs 13(4) editorial by R.W. Grigg). Some sources esti- mate that 10% of all reefs have been degraded beyond recovery, and another 20-30% are in peril over the next 10-20 years. As an initial effort to counter this trend, the United States is developing an interagency Coral Reef Ini- tiative (CRI) to create the base for a combined domestic and international effort aimed at the conservation and ef- fective management of coral reefs and related ecosystems (mangroves and sea grass beds). A U.S. CRI Coordination Team and Steering Committee have been created and staf- fed by personnel from a number of U.S. agencies to coordinate the development of the Initiative. Effective management of coral reef ecosystems addresses such glo- bal environmental concerns as biodiversity, land-based sources of marine pollution, sustainable development and climate change. Hence, the U.S., Japan, Australia, Jamai- ca, France, the United Kingdom, and the Philippines have also announced an International CRI to protect coral reefs in partnership with other coral reef nations around the world, non-governmental organizations, international or- ganizations, multilateral development banks, and private sector businesses. The State Department is currently pro- viding the overall Coordination Office for the international

Strategy for the Control of Land-Based Sources of Marine Pollution in the Wider Caribbean Region

Abstract The pollution of the marine environment caused by land-based sources threatens or impairs the health of the ecosystems and the value of human uses of the coastal waters. the Contracting Parties to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region agreed to take all appropriate measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution. in the first meeting of the Contracting Parties, the development of a protocol on the control of marine pollution from land-based sources was recommended as a measure to protect the marine environment. A small group of experts from the Caribbean Region formulated a strategy for controlling land-based sources of marine pollution. Due to the diverse nature, resources and capabilities of the countries comprising the Region, the pollution control strategy suggested by the group of experts included the following techniques or their most appropriate combination: (1) pollution prevention measures, (2) effluent limitations, (3...

The control of land-based sources of marine pollution: Recent international initiatives and prospects

There is ample evidence that the oceans cannot provide the infinite sink for wastes and sustain the level of resource extraction and coastal zone development that was originally thought possible. There is also consensus that land-based sources of marine pollution are not adequately addressed and further serious degradation of the marine environment will occur without concerted new action. The expectation for the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) is that this challenge will be met through a renewed commitment by all states to prevent, reduce and control degradation of the marine environment from land-based sources of pollution and activities.

Economic measures to protect the environment

trol of land-based sources of marine pollution lies in the interrelationship between economic and environmental policies. National governments should be encouraged to use economic instruments to support and improve existing regulatory systems. It is likely that economic instruments drawn from the categories of charges, subsidies and financial enforcement incentives will be of the greatest assistance in protecting the marine environment. Economic instruments, because they can be self financing, making use of markets and allocating costs between polluters, are generally, more efficient than a strictly regulatory approach. It is recommended that a high priority be given to research into economic instruments and their appli~tion where appropriate to land-based sources of marine pollution.

Land-based sources of marine pollution: Current legal regime

Land-based sources of marine pollution: Current legal regime

(1) The north sea

This case study outlines Belgium's policy towards land-based sources of marine pollution, putting that policy in the context of regional and international efforts to combat land-based sources of pollution.

The North Sea legal regime

If conflicts of uses in, and further degradation of, the marine environment of the North Sea occur by the year 2000 this will not be for want of a framework for the international legal regime. This now exists at the global, regional and sub-regional level. During the past 20 years, in response to the impetus provided by the United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment held in 1972, not only have longstanding international bodies such as the IMO (International Maritime Organization), the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), the Nordic Council, the Council of Europe and the European Community adopted active programmes for protection of the marine environment which had led to the adoption of treaties, regulations, guidelines and codes of practice, but also many new regional commissions and organizations have been established, to develop the measures concerning specific aspects of the required regime. Thus, the Oslo Commission now deals with measures to control and prevent ocean dumping; the Paris Commission with Land-based Sources of Marine Pollution; the Bonn Agreements with Co-operation in dealing with oil and other spillages. Even NATO has established a Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) to promote environmental protection in its area. What is lacking is any one body that takes an overall view of the situation. This paper outlines the regime developed through all these bodies and also examines whether there is a need to develop any new comprehensive body; whether an existing body could be given the lead role, or whether the on-going North Sea Conference, backed by the services of the new Task Force, can fill this role.

Land-based sources of marine pollution

Land-based sources of marine pollution