Lambert Law Research Articles

Recycled Carbon Black/High-Density Polyethylene Composite from Waste Tires: Manufacturing, Testing, and Aging Characterization

This study addresses the global issue of recycling used vehicle tires, typically burned out or trimmed to be reused in playground floors or road banks. In this study, we explore a novel environmentally responsive approach to decomposing and recovering the carbon black particles contained in tires (25–30 wt.%) by vacuum pyrolysis. Given that carbon black is well known for its UV protection in plastics, the objective of this research is to provide an ecological alternative to commercial carbon black of fossil origin by recycling the carbon black (rCB) from used tires. In our research, we create a composite material using rCB and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). In this article, we present the environmental aging studies carried out on this composite material. The topographic evolution of the samples with aging and the oxidation kinetics of the surface and through the thickness were studied. The Beer–Lambert law is used to relate the oxidative index to the characteristic depth of the samples. The UV photons are observed to penetrate up to 54% less with the addition of 6 wt.% of rCB compared to virgin HDPE. In this work, the addition of rCB as filler for HDPE used for outdoor applications has demonstrated to be an antioxidant for UV protection and a good substitute for commercial carbon black for industrial goods.

Ultra-Short Pulses Laser Heating of Dielectrics: A Semi-Classical Analytical Model

Femtosecond laser pulses are currently regarded as an emerging and promising tool for processing wide bandgap dielectric materials across a variety of high-end applications, although the associated physical phenomena are not yet fully understood. To address these challenges, we propose an original, fully analytical model combined with Two Temperatures Model (TTM) formalism. The model is applied to describe the interaction of fs laser pulses with a typical dielectric target (e.g., Sapphire). It describes the heating of dielectrics, such as Sapphire, under irradiation by fs laser pulses in the range of (1012–1014) W/cm2. The proposed formalism was implemented to calculate the free electron density, while numerical simulations of temperature field evolution within the dielectrics were conducted using the TTM. Mathematical models have rarely been used to solve the TTM in the context of laser–dielectric interactions. Unlike the TTM applied to metals, which requires solving two heat equations, for dielectrics the free electron density must first be determined. We propose an analytical model to solve the TTM equations using this parameter. A new simulation model was developed, combining the equations for non-equilibrium electron density determination with the TTM equations. Our analyses revealed the non-linear nature of the physical phenomena involved and the inapplicability of the Beer–Lambert law for fs laser pulse interactions with dielectric targets at incident laser fluences ranging from 6 to 20 J/cm2.

Three-dimensional particulate volume fraction reconstruction in the fluid based on the Lambert–Beer physics information neural network

The measurement of particle volume fraction in flow fields is of great significance in scientific research and engineering applications. As one of the particle detection techniques, the light extinction method is widely used in measuring nano-particles volume fraction in flow fields due to its simplicity and non-contact nature. In particular, in complex reactive flow fields like combustion reactions, the volume fraction of soot particulate and other particles can be accurately measured and reconstructed via the light extinction method that based on the Beer–Lambert law. This is crucial for exploring combustion phenomena, understanding their internal mechanisms, and reducing pollutant emissions. However, due to the enormous computational burden, current algebra reconstruction techniques struggle to achieve high-precision three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction of particles. Therefore, this paper originally proposes a 3D reconstruction algorithm based on the Beer–Lambert law physical information neural networks (LB-PINNs). By incorporating physical information as constraints into the particle reconstruction process, it is possible to achieve high-precision 3D reconstruction of particles in complex flow field environments with low computational cost. Meanwhile, to address the trade-off issues of reconstruction accuracy and smooth noise resistance in previous reconstruction algorithms, i.e., Tikhonov regularization, this paper employs dynamically adjusted regularization parameters in the LB-PINN algorithm. This approach ensures smooth noise-resistant processing while maintaining reconstruction accuracy, significantly reducing computation time and resource consumption. According to the experimental results, LB-PINNs demonstrate superior performance compared to previous reconstruction algorithms when reconstructing the soot volume fraction in complex reacting flow fields, i.e., combustion flame scenarios.

A tutorial on the physics of light and image shading.

This paper provides an overview of the many different ways that light interacts with surfaces in the natural environment to provide useful information for visual perception. It begins with a discussion of how the concept of light has evolved over the course of human history. It then considers a wide variety of optical phenomena including Lambert's laws of illumination, the effects of microscopic surface structure on patterns of reflection, the bidirectional reflectance distribution function, the refraction of transmitted light, chromatic dispersion, thin film interference, sub-surface scattering, the Fresnel effects, indirect illumination from multiple reflections, caustics, and the structure of the light field. The primary goal of this discussion is to provide the necessary background information to help students and young researchers more easily understand the scientific literature on the perception of 3D shape and material properties from patterns of image shading.

Physical Properties Studies of Magnesium Phthalocyanine (MgPc) Thin Films of Different Annealing Temperatures Prepared by Pulsed Laser Deposition Technique

Magnesium Phthalocyanine (MgPc) was deposited on a glass substrate by pulsed laser deposition (PLD) using Q-Switching Nd:YAG laser with wavelength 1064 nm, repetition rate 6 Hz, at room temperature (300K) and different annealing temperatures (373, 473, and 573)K under vacuum condition of 10-3 torr. All films were annealed for one hour to attain crystallinity. X-ray diffraction (XRD) of MgPc powder indicated that MgPc crystallizes in polycrystalline with a monoclinic structure. While comparing the MgPc films, it was observed that the intensity of the characteristic peak increases with temperature, and the crystallization exhibited a monoclinic structure typical of the β-form. The Miller indices, hkl, values for each diffraction peak in the XRD spectrum were calculated. The characteristic peak of Phthalocyanine (MgPc) was found at 2θ value 6.9137ᵒ with the hkl value of (100) for both MgPc powder and deposited thin films. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analyses indicated that crystallinity improved and surface morphology was enhanced with the rise in annealing temperature and showed uniform-sized grains. They also assisted in identifying the optimal parameters that yielded the best structural properties for the film. The optical properties of MgPc thin film showed two absorption bands. The MgPc thin films exhibit transport and onset direct energy gaps (Eg) for all samples. Additionally, the absorption coefficient (α) was calculated using Lambert Law, revealing a slight dependence on the annealing temperature.

Analytic Parameterization of Longwave Optical Properties of Bulk Vegetation Layer Permitting Non‐Zero Leaf Reflectivity and Its Implementation in CLM5

AbstractFor modern land surface models (LSMs) representing a singular bulk vegetation layer, the longwave optical properties (i.e., emissivity, reflectivity, and transmittivity) of vegetation layer are derived with a simplified constraint of assuming zero leaf reflectivity. This constraint is necessary, for instance, to the Beer–Lambert (B–L) law to establish a relationship between the optical properties and leaf area index. However, the simplified constraint leads to an overestimation of land surface emissivity in the vegetated regions. In this study, we introduce a new scheme considering realistic leaf reflectivity values rather than assuming zero. This new scheme is based on the relationship derived from the B–L law, but it is statistically augmented to consider the effects of leaf reflections. It is designed to emulate a multi‐vegetation‐layer numerical model known as the Norman model, which is capable of numerical calculations of multi‐reflections among leaves. This new method consists of only a couple of simple equations; despite its simplicity, it very closely mimics the Norman model; The discrepancy of the results between the new method and the Norman model is less than measurement uncertainties for any combination of input parameters. When the new scheme is implemented in the Community Land Model version 5 (CLM5), the land surface emissivity values are simulated much more consistently with global measurements, resulting in significant alterations of land surface energy budget. The enhanced realism through our new scheme is poised to contribute to more accurate numerical weather and climate simulations.

Origin of the anisotropic Beer–Lambert law from dichroism and birefringence in β -Ga2O3

The anisotropic optical absorption edge of β-Ga2O3 follows a modified Beer–Lambert law having two effective absorption coefficients. The absorption coefficient of linearly polarized light reduces to the least absorbing direction beyond a critical penetration depth, which itself depends on polarization and wavelength. To understand this behavior, a Stokes vector analysis is performed to track the polarization state as a function of depth. The weakening of the absorption coefficient is associated with a gradual shift of linear polarization to the least absorbing crystallographic direction in the plane, which is along the a-exciton within the (010) plane or along the b-exciton in the (001) plane. We show that strong linear dichroism near the optical absorption edge causes this shift in β-Ga2O3, which arises from the anisotropy and spectral splitting of the physical absorbers, i.e., excitons. The linear polarization shift is accompanied by a variation in the ellipticity due to the birefringence of β-Ga2O3. Analysis of the phase relationship between the incoming electric field to that at a certain depth reveals the phase speed as an effective refractive index, which varies along different crystallographic directions. The critical penetration depth is shown to be correlated with the depth at which the ellipticity is maximal. Thus, the anisotropic Beer–Lambert law arises from the interplay of both the dichroic and birefringent properties of β-Ga2O3.

Identification of Blood Sugar Based on Non-invasive Measurements UsingPhotoplethysmography Method Signal Decoding in Diabetics in Tasikmalaya

Non-invasive blood sugar testing tools are now in great demand among the public. This research aims to develop a non-invasive blood sugar examination tool with a Photopletysmograph signal decoding system based on data acquisition from a wearable sensor device on the wrist. The tool used for data acquisition uses Near Infra Red Light-emitting Diode NIR LED 880 nm, 660 nm and 537 nm. This acquisition transfers signals from the body via a photodiode to a PC Personal Computer for processing using Matlab. The method used in this research is to look for the height of the systolic and diastolic amplitude of the Photopletysmograph PPG signal and use the peak-to-peak voltage Vpp to implement Beer Lambert's law. This method was tested on 54 people, randomly aged 26-89 years, with normal blood sugar to high blood sugar. The results show an error of 18.37% from the gold standard. In conclusion, the use of the PPG signal decoding method has proven to be significant in producing blood sugar values. Furthermore, this method was developed for real-time remote measurements via wearable sensor devices.

Heuristic estimation of river bathymetry in braided streams using digital image processing

AbstractMeasurement of river bathymetry has been revolutionized by high‐resolution remote sensing that combines UAV platforms with SfM‐MVS photogrammetry. Mapping inundated and exposed areas simultaneously are possible using either two‐media refraction correction or some form of the Beer–Lambert Law to estimate water depths. If, as in turbid glacially‐fed braided streams, the bed is not visible then traditional survey techniques (e.g. differential GPS systems) are required. As an alternative, here we test whether the spatial distribution of water depths in a shallow braided stream can be modelled from basic planimetric data and used to estimate inundated zone bathymetry. We develop heuristic rules using; (1) distance from the nearest river bank; (2) total inundated width along a line tangential to the local flow direction; (3) local curvature magnitude and direction; and distance from the nearest flow (4) divergence and (5) convergence regions. We parameterize them using a sample of measured water depths in stepwise multiple linear regressions and validate them using independent data. Resulting water depth distribution maps explain between 50% and 60% of the measured water depth spatial variability when compared to independent data. After incorporating modelled water depths into digital elevation models (DEMs) of exposed areas, we show that the developed method is suitable for volumetric change calculations in both dry and inundated areas.

Exploring the use of extended multiplicative scattering correction for near infrared spectra of wood with fungal decay

Extended Multiplicative Signal Correction (EMSC) is a multivariate linear modelling technique for multi-channel measurements that can identify and correct for different types of systematic variation patterns, known or unknown. It is typically used for pre-processing to separate light absorbance spectra, obtained by diffuse reflectance of intact samples, into three main sources of variation: additive variations due to chemical composition (≈Beer's law), mixed multiplicative and additive variations due to physical light scattering (≈Lambert's law) and more or less random measurement noise. The present work evaluates the use of EMSC to pre-process near infrared spectra obtained by hyperspectral imaging of Scots pine sapwood, inoculated with two different basidiomycete fungi and at various degradation stages. The spectral changes due to fungal decay and resulting mass loss are assessed by interpretation of the EMSC parameters and the partial least squares regression (PLSR) results. Including a cellulose (analyte) or bound water (interferent) spectral profile in the EMSC pre-processing model generally improves the predictive performance of the PLS modelling, but it can also make it worse. The inclusion of the additional polynomial baselines does not necessarily lead to a better separation of the physical and chemical effects present in the spectra. The estimated EMSC parameters provide insight into the differences in decay mechanisms. A detailed analysis of the EMSC results highlights advantages and disadvantages of using a complex pre-processing model.

On the Origin of the Photoplethysmography Signal: Modeling of Volumetric and Aggregation Effects

This study aimed to examine the mechanisms of the photoplethysmography (PPG) signal formation using Monte Carlo simulations of light transport in biological tissues and experimental observations. Based on a three-layer skin model in backscattering geometry, we sequentially simulated volumetric blood changes and the aggregation/disaggregation of erythrocytes in the dermal layer and estimated their contribution to the registered PPG signal. The calculations were conducted for two wavelengths: 525 nm and 810 nm. For green light, absorption predominates over scattering in the formation of a PPG signal, whereas, for near-infrared light, scattering prevails over absorption. This theoretical result was verified using the Modified Beer–Lambert law and clinical in vivo PPG data of seven healthy subjects. Changes in the size of the scatterers during erythrocyte aggregation and disaggregation can significantly contribute to the PPG signal at near-infrared light. Thus, for the green waveband, the classical volumetric model can be considered dominant in the PPG signal formation. In contrast, for the near-infrared range, both volumetric and aggregation effects must be considered as being approximately equal.

Monte Carlo simulations of light transport in sunscreen formulations

Sunscreens are used for the protection of human skin against the harmful effects of solar UV radiation. Due to the low thickness of sunscreen films typically applied to the skin, it can be challenging to achieve the strong absorbance needed for good UV-protection, and most efficient sunscreen compositions are desirable. The presence of scattering particles can increase the efficacy of dissolved UV-absorbers in the oil or water phases of the formulation. As many sunscreens contain UV-absorbing particles, it is of interest how much the scattering effect of such materials contribute to the protection of the respective sunscreen. The currently available software programs for simulating sunscreen performance are based on a Beer–Lambert law approach and do not take into account such scattering effects of particles. However, Monte Carlo simulations of the UV-light transport through sunscreen films are capable to take scattering from particles into consideration. Using Monte Carlo simulations, this work shows that the efficacy of absorbance is indeed increased in the presence of scattering particles. However, this is of limited significance when the particles are UV-absorbers themselves.Graphical abstract

DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF METHODS FOR THE SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF PROSPIDIUM CHLORIDE FOR IDENTIFICATION AND ASSAY ANALYSIS

Objective. The work is devoted to the development and validation of UV-spectrophotometric analysis of propidium chloride, an antitumour drug of the dyspyropiperazine group. The relevance of the study is due to the need to introduce into the practice of quality control of prospidium chloride analysis method characterised by high sensitivity, accuracy, rapidity and availability. Material and methods. The object of the study was a medicinal substance-powder Prospidin (Prospidium chloride, series 271222, expiry date until 12.2027g, produced by «Unitehprom BSU», Minsk). Solutions with working concentration range from 0.05 mol/l to 0.2 mol/l for spectrophotometric analysis were prepared using purified water. Absorption spectra with determination of analytical wavelength (λmax, nm) and value of molar absorption coefficient ε, (l mol-1cm-1) in the range from 200 nm to 400 nm were obtained and analysed on Agilent Cary 60 equipment. Validation parameters were determined in accordance with the regulations of the General Pharmacopoeial Article 1.1.0012.15. Results. Validation evaluation of the developed analytical techniques for the determination of authenticity and active ingredient content by UV spectro-photometry included tests for specificity (in the presence of NaCl 0.9% solution), analytical range (0.05−0.2 mol/L), linearity (r=0.9997), accuracy, preci-sion in terms of repeatability 3.89±0.24 ( ±SD) and intra-laboratory reproducibility (ε=2.1%) and stability. Conclusion. The analysis of electronic spectra of aqueous solutions of propidium chloride demonstrated the presence of R-band absorption (German radikalartig − radical, for systems with unshared electron pairs) with a characteristic wavelength in the far-UV region at λmax=282±0.4 nm, and λmin=255±0.4 nm. It was found that the absorption at λmax in the concentration range from 0.05 mol/L to 0.2 mol/L of a solution of propidine chloride containing nitrogen heteroatoms with unshared electron pairs is due to the implementation of the so-called formally forbidden n→σ* electronic transition involving molecular orbitals. The characteristic appearance of the electronic spectrum with λmax and λmin, compliance with the Beer–Lambert law in the given concentration range, the calculated value of the molar extinction coefficient ε (l mol1cm1) − allow to use the above described spectral characteristics to determine the authenticity and content of the active substance in quality control of prospidium chloride.

Performance and optimization study of selected 4-terminal tandem solar cells

Tandem solar cells owing to their layered structure in which each sub-cell utilizes a certain part of the solar spectrum with reduced thermal losses, are promising applicants to promote the power conversion efficiency beyond the Shockley–Queisser limit of single-junction solar cells. This study delves into the performance and optimization of 4-terminal organic/silicon tandem solar cells through numerical simulations using SCAPS-1D software. The tandem architecture combining organic, perovskite, and silicon materials, shows potential in enhancing light absorption across the solar spectrum with complementary absorption spectra. Through innovative material exploration, optimization techniques are explored to advance the performance boundaries of organic/silicon tandem solar cells. The study employs the Beer–Lambert law to assess the impact of varied physical parameters on tandem solar cell efficiency, aiming to propose optimal configurations. Results indicate a maximum efficiency of 25.86% with P3HT:PC70BM organic active layer (150 nm thickness) and 36.8% with Cs2AgBi0.75Sb0.25Br6 active layer (400 nm thickness) in the studied 4-terminal tandem structures. These findings offer valuable insights into the complex physics of these tandem solar cells, for developing high-performance and commercially practical photovoltaic devices.

Towards in-situ water quantification via neutron imaging: insights from NeXT-Grenoble

Neutron imaging has gained increasing attention in recent years. A notable domain is the in-situ study of flow and concentration of hydrogen-rich materials. This demands precise quantification of the evolving concentrations. Several implementations deviate from the ideal conditions that allow the direct applicability of the Beer–Lambert law to assess this concentration. The objective of this work is to address these deviations by applying both calibration and correction procedures to ensure and validate accurate quantitative measurements during 2D and 3D neutron imaging conducted at the cold neutron source at the NeXT instrument of the Institute Laue–Langevin, Grenoble, France. Linear attenuation coefficients and non-linear correlations have been proposed to measure the water concentration based on the sample-to-detector distance. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the black body grid correction method, introduced by Boillat et al (2018 Opt. Express 26 15769), is evaluated which accounts for spurious deviations arising from the scattering of neutrons from the sample and the surrounding environment. The applicability of the Beer–Lambert law without any data correction is found to be reasonable within limited equivalent thickness (e.g. below 4 mm of water) beyond which the correction algorithm proves highly effective in eliminating spurious effects. Notably, this correction method maintains its effectiveness even with transmissions below 1%. We examine here the impact of grid location and resolution with respect to sample heterogeneity.

Dissipative Particle Dynamics Study on the Phase Region of Spatial Gradient Materials Produced by Photoinduced Isomerization

AbstractSpatial gradient materials occupy an important research position in the field of functional materials with their unique porous structure. Gradient changes in pore size and density distribution have received extensive attention in the fields of biomimetic and smart materials. The gradient transition law is mathematically related to the driving force of isomerization reaction and component phase separation. In this study, a dissipative particle dynamics simulation is used to introduce photoisomerization reactions into the system. Lambert's law is used to construct a reaction model for the variation of light intensity with irradiation depth, and a gradient structure with a spatial transition law is obtained. The effects of the extinction coefficient ε, the initial reaction probability Pr0, and the interactions α(A,B) between the isomerized molecules as well as the viscosity on the formation of the gradient structure are investigated in detail. Furthermore, the mathematical proportionality between the size of the phase region and interfacial energy of the two phases is elucidated. This study provides preliminary computational insights into the factors affecting the photoinduced phase separation process of polymeric gradient materials. It may help to develop effective strategies to improve the phase separation and properties of polymer gradient materials in subsequent studies.

Extending UWOC System Applications through Photon Transmission Dynamics Study in Harbor Waters

Underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) in harbor waters can facilitate real-time monitoring underwater instruments for environmental monitoring, underwater inspection, and maintenance tasks. This study delves into the complex dynamics of UWOC in four distinct harbor waters. The research employs Monte Carlo method incorporated with Fournier–Forand scattering phase function for simulating photon transmission. Key parameters such as the Transmitted full divergence angle, received aperture, and Field of View (FOV) are meticulously evaluated for their impact on power loss and time delay spread. Notably, the normalized power loss and time delay spread are found to be more significantly affected by communication distance than water quality, and the traditional Beer–Lambert law is ineffective in harbor water. The power loss of Harbor II, III, and IV are found to be 14.00 dB, 31.59 dB, and 41.59 dB lower than that of Harbor I, and the time delay spread of Harbor II, III, and IV is 30.56%, 9.67%, and 0.49% times that of the Harbor I under certain conditions. In addition, increasing the received aperture and FOV, particularly over longer distance, make little contribution to reduce the power loss and mitigate the time delay spread. Based on the fixed transmitted full divergence angle, the most applicable received FOV range is 1–3.2 rad, and the most ideal received aperture is 0.15–0.4 m. Under these conditions, the variation in normalized power loss is less than 2 dB. Additionally, the time delay spread remains within the same order of magnitude with the attenuation length (AL) held constant. These conclusions hold substantial technical relevance for the engineering design of UWOC systems in harbor waters.

Why Mature Galaxies Seem to Have Filled the Universe Shortly After the Big Bang — A New Cosmological Model, that Predicted the JWST Observations

The Azimulthal Hyper-Projection (AHP) onto spacetime Model of Cosmology is just an extension of the familiar Atlas map of a globe in geography. The Atlas is an azimuthal projection of 3 spacial dimensions projected onto a 2 dimensional plane. The important feature of an Atlas is that the geometry expands asymptotic toward the horizon, and is therefore POSITIONALLY DEPENDENT, such that if North America is centrally positioned, then Siberia and Alaska are viewed as extremely remote. Thus if the Bering Strait were centrally positioned, then longitudinal meridians of North America would likewise be viewed as being remotely separated. AHP extends this concept to a hyper-projection of 5 dimensions onto spacetime. However as viewed in spacetime, geodesics appear to be expanding outward in 3 dimensional space away from the observer. Thus by extension, AHP is also POSITIONALLY DEPENDENT, such that the separations between remote galaxies appear (measures) to be much greater than they would appear from their mutual local group, and vice versa our local group of galaxies would appear to be mutually separated with extreme distances from a remote perspective. A proposed experiment (figure 14) is offered to prove that two separated objects, as measure from a remote distance \((\sim 40 AU)\) are greater than their respective distance, as measured locally. Red-shifting is alternatively proposed as azimuthal angular projections of wavelengths \(\lambda\). Magnitude is alternatively proposed as a function of Lambert's cosine law of illumination, over expanding geodesics. From established \(z\) values, the Universal hypersphere is calculated (figure 9). A function of this projected hypersphere is shown to match the Universal expansion rate, as established from supernova cosmology survey points, and also satisfies the Cosmological Constant \(\Lambda\), without dark energy. Flattened galaxy rotation curves are simply and accurately explained as measured expanding geodesics and apparent increasing density, along the observer's line of sight (figure 11, equation 20). As well, this model provides a reasonable explanation of the James Web Space Telescope findings: of maturely developed galaxies at the time of the early universe. The justification of such a radically novel model is from recent observations from the first dataset, provided by NASA's James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) of six massive galaxies, at a time in the early universe, seem to defy conventional cosmological models, as they appear to be as mature and developed as our own local group. Such unexpected discoveries JUSTIFY A RADICALLY NOVEL MODEL OF COSMOLOGY. TO QUOTE JOEL LEJA, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS AT PENN STATE “IT TURNS OUT WE FOUND SOMETHING SO UNEXPECTED IT ACTUALLY CREATES PROBLEMS FOR SCIENCE. IT CALLS THE WHOLE PICTURE OF EARLY GALAXY FORMATION INTO QUESTION”.

Artificial neural network models: implementation of functional near-infrared spectroscopy-based spontaneous lie detection in an interactive scenario.

Deception is an inevitable occurrence in daily life. Various methods have been used to understand the mechanisms underlying brain deception. Moreover, numerous efforts have been undertaken to detect deception and truth-telling. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has great potential for neurological applications compared with other state-of-the-art methods. Therefore, an fNIRS-based spontaneous lie detection model was used in the present study. We interviewed 10 healthy subjects to identify deception using the fNIRS system. A card game frequently referred to as a bluff or cheat was introduced. This game was selected because its rules are ideal for testing our hypotheses. The optical probe of the fNIRS was placed on the subject's forehead, and we acquired optical density signals, which were then converted into oxy-hemoglobin and deoxy-hemoglobin signals using the Modified Beer-Lambert law. The oxy-hemoglobin signal was preprocessed to eliminate noise. In this study, we proposed three artificial neural networks inspired by deep learning models, including AlexNet, ResNet, and GoogleNet, to classify deception and truth-telling. The proposed models achieved accuracies of 88.5%, 88.0%, and 90.0%, respectively. These proposed models were compared with other classification models, including k-nearest neighbor, linear support vector machines (SVM), quadratic SVM, cubic SVM, simple decision trees, and complex decision trees. These comparisons showed that the proposed models performed better than the other state-of-the-art methods.

Why Mature Galaxies Seem to Have Filled the Universe Shortly After the Big Bang — A New Cosmological Model, that Predicted the JWST Observations

The Azimulthal Hyper-Projection onto spacetime Model (AHOSM) of Cosmology is just an extension of the familiar Atlas map of a globe in geography class. The Atlas is an azimuthal projection of 3 spacial dimensions projected onto a 2 dimensional plane. The important feature of an Atlas is that the geometry expands asymptotic toward the horizon, and is therefore POSITIONALLY DEPENDENT, such that if North America is centrally positioned, then Siberia and Alaska are viewed as extremely remote. Thus if the Bering Strait were centrally positioned, then longitudinal meridians of North America would likewise be viewed as being extremely remote. AHOSM extends this concept to a hyper-projection of hyper-spacetime (4 spacial dimensions) onto spacetime. However as viewed in spacetime, geodesics appear to be expanding outward in 3 dimensional space away from the observer. Thus by extension, AHOSM is also POSITIONALLY DEPENDENT, such that the most remote galaxies only appear to be mutually separated (from each other) with extreme distance, as viewed from our central position, and vice versa our local group of Galaxies would appear to be mutually separated with extreme distances from a remote perspective. A proposed experiment is offered to prove that the distance from Earth to Mars is measured greater from the perspective of the outer solar system and vice versa. Red-shifting is alternatively proposed as azimuthal angular projections of wavelengths \(\lambda\). Magnitude is alternatively proposed as a function of Lambert's cosine law of illumination, over expanding geodesics. This simple parsimonious model requires only a few assumptions, excluding dark energy to satisfy the Cosmological Constant \(\Lambda\), and is shown to match the Universal expansion rate, as established from supernova cosmology survey points. Galaxy rotation curves are simply and accurately explained as measured expanding geodesics and density, along the observer's line of site The justification of such a radically novel model is from recent observations from the first dataset, provided by NASA's James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) of six massive galaxies, at a time in the early universe, seem to defy conventional cosmological models, as they appear to be as mature and developed as our own local group. Such unexpected discoveries JUSTIFY A RADICALLY NOVEL MODEL OF COSMOLOGY. TO QUOTE JOEL LEJA, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS AT PENN STATE “IT TURNS OUT WE FOUND SOMETHING SO UNEXPECTED IT ACTUALLY CREATES PROBLEMS FOR SCIENCE. IT CALLS THE WHOLE PICTURE OF EARLY GALAXY FORMATION INTO QUESTION”.