Lakes Marine Park Research Articles

Patterns in abundance, size and space‐use of Giant Mud Crab (Scylla serrata) in a temperate marine protected area

Abstract Marine Protected Areas limit fishing to protect a broad range of species and enhance biodiversity. Consequently, closures may not benefit species equally and species‐specific assessments are required to determine the impact of closures. Relative abundance and size of Giant Mud Crab (Scylla serrata) was compared across no‐take and fished zones in Port Stephens‐Great Lakes Marine Park, on the temperate east coast of Australia (32.45°S). In addition, passive acoustic telemetry was used to estimate daily space‐use areas. Similar abundances were observed between no‐take and fished zones; however certain no‐take sites had higher abundances than others. In addition, crabs were 9.9 mm larger in no‐take zones on average. Daily crab space‐use varied widely (~4 to 1000 m2), and generally increased with water temperature and conductivity. These patterns indicate that recruitment processes interact with marine park protection to shape crab abundances across estuaries. However no‐take zoning appears to primarily limit fishing mortality on legal size crabs (i.e., carapace length >85 mm) resulting in larger crabs within no‐take zones. This may mean no‐take zones enhance reproductive output of crab populations since larger individuals are likely to be more fecund.

Identifying spatial conservation priorities using Traditional and Local Ecological Knowledge of iconic marine species and ecosystem threats

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) can be an effective spatial approach to conservation, especially when they involve genuine consultation that considers the diversity of stakeholders. Participatory mapping and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 52 stakeholders and 22 managers and scientists to identify ecological priorities and concerns across a large temperate MPA in Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park, Australia. There were 19 iconic species of fish, dolphins, whales, and sea turtles that were the focus of ecological priorities and stakeholder interactions with the marine environment. Effectiveness of the current MPA management plan for addressing stakeholder priority and concerns, was assessed using GIS spatial modelling that created fuzzy-set species distribution models (SDMs) based on Traditional and Local Ecological Knowledge as well as scientific and citizen-science survey data. These spatial models for the iconic species across the MPA were then overlaid with ecological concerns of the stakeholders to create a spatial understanding of local threats, and priority areas for targeted management. Poor water quality from terrestrial primary sources was the main concern of stakeholders, more so than in-water threats such as poor fishing practices or impacts to iconic species. While local managers and scientists were relatively reluctant to answer interview questions, there was a general misalignment in approaches to iconic species management, especially for mobile and migratory species, and misunderstanding of stakeholder perceptions of threats. Participatory mapping of social-ecological values provides a method for stakeholders and decision-makers to better understand, discuss, and adapt marine spatial management approaches that support a diversity of conservation and management priorities.

Illegal recreational fishing causes a decline in a fishery targeted species (Snapper: Chrysophrys auratus) within a remote no-take marine protected area

One role of Marine Protected Areas is to protect biodiversity; however, illegal fishing activity can reduce the effectiveness of protection. Quantifying illegal fishing effort within no-take MPAs is difficult and the impacts of illegal fishing on biodiversity are poorly understood. To provide an assessment of illegal fishing activity, a surveillance camera was deployed at the Seal Rocks no-take area within the Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park from April 2017-March 2018. To assess impacts of illegal fishing activity in the no-take area, Baited Remote Underwater Video Systems (BRUVs) were used to quantify abundance and size of snapper Chrysophrys auratus from 2011–2017. BRUVs were also deployed at two nearby fished locations and two other no-take areas to allow comparison. Over 12 months of camera surveillance, a total of 108 recreational vessels were observed illegally fishing within the no-take area (avg 9.0 ± 0.9 per month). The greatest number of vessels detected in a single month was 14 and the longest a vessel was observed fishing was ~ 6 hours. From 2011–2017, the abundance of C. auratus within the Seal Rocks no-take area significantly declined by 55%, whilst the abundance within the other fished areas and no-take areas did not significantly decline over the same period. Lengths of C. auratus in the Seal Rocks no-take area were significantly smaller in 2017 compared to 2013 which was driven by a decline in the number of legal sized fish over 30 cm. Based on mean number of illegal fishers per vessel recorded in the no-take area, and an allowable bag limit of 10 C. auratus per person, it is possible that more than 2,000 C. auratus are removed annually from this no-take area. There is a strong likelihood that illegal recreational fishing is causing a reduction on a fishery targeted species within a no-take MPA and measures need to be implemented to reduce the ongoing illegal fishing pressure.

Increase in Relative Abundance and Size of Snapper Chrysophrys auratus Within Partially-Protected and No-Take Areas in a Temperate Marine Protected Area

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are known to contribute towards the conservation of marine biodiversity, particularly targeted fishery species. Snapper Chrysophrys auratus are an important recreational and commercial fish species in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, and despite fishery management for this species, they are considered ‘growth overfished’ in this region. To assess how C. auratus respond to the implementation of an MPA with several no-take and partially protected areas in temperate NSW, we monitored their populations over a decade (2006-2017) using baited remote underwater video systems (BRUVs). Surveys were conducted in the Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park with BRUVs deployed on rocky reefs in depths of 20 – 50 m. Long term seasonal sampling (winter vs summer) was undertaken at two locations (Broughton and Fingal Island), and changes in C. auratus abundance prior to, and eight years after zoning implementation, were assessed between these two locations. In total, we sampled five no-take areas within the marine park and five comparative nearby partially protected fished areas and three sites located outside the marine park boundaries. The most pronounced changes in abundance and size structure for C. auratus were observed in the Broughton Island no-take area where numbers increased almost 3-fold (2.91 times) over 8 years of protection. Relative abundance showed seasonal variation at two locations, and we consistently recorded increasing abundance within no-take areas at Broughton and Fingal Island compared to nearby sites open to fishing. Surveys across the five no-take areas found a significant increase in the abundance of C. auratus, whilst the five partially-protected locations in the marine park still recorded higher abundances than sites outside the marine park. In addition, length measurements from stereo-BRUVS indicated that C. auratus were significantly larger in no-take areas compared to partially-protected areas in the marine park and sites outside the marine park. This study demonstrates how the implementation of the marine park and the protection afforded by no-take and partially-protected areas provides refuge for this important fishery targeted species.

A tale of two islands: Decadal changes in rocky reef fish assemblages following implementation of no-take marine protected areas in New South Wales, Australia

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are used worldwide as a management tool for the protection of marine biodiversity. To assess decadal changes in rocky reef fish assemblages following MPA protection, fish assemblages were monitored regularly in the Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park (PSGLMP), New South Wales, Australia, using Baited Remote Underwater Video (BRUVs) comparing between fished and non-fished zones. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of fish assemblages and fishery targeted species were assessed from 2006–2016 at two no-take zones at Broughton and Fingal Islands, and compared with nearby fished areas. A total of 102 species from families was observed over the study, with fish assemblage response being dependent on both the spatial scales of MPA zoning and locations within the park, and the temporal scales assessed. Five fishery targeted families, Labridae, Scorpaenidae, Sparidae, Monacanthidae and Cheilodactylidae, increased in relative abundance within no-take zones, compared with fished zones, although the response was variable among families and between locations. While abundance increased at both locations following the implementation of no-take zones, a significant zoning effect was only detected at Broughton Island, with the Labridae and Sparidae displaying the greatest increases in relative abundance within the no-take zone. This study demonstrates that the response of fish assemblages and targeted fishery families to the implementation of no-take MPA zones varies both temporally, and between locations. Differences in the assemblage response between locations are likely driven by the size and habitats within the no-take zones and these factors need to be adequately considered in MPA planning.

Exploring recreational fishers' perceptions, attitudes, and support towards a multiple-use marine protected area six years after implementation

This study assessed the acceptance and awareness of an Australian MPA (Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park) post implementation by recreational fishers using the MPA, and identified factors that influenced the perception of this group towards the MPA. Recreational fishers were interviewed in a multiple-use MPA to investigate their perceptions, attitudes, and support towards the MPA six years after implementation. Almost two thirds of recreational fishers supported the MPA and had positive attitudes towards the concept of MPAs. This is a key result since a similar pre-implementation survey of recreational fishers found only 12% would support the creation of PSGLMP due to fears the MPA would negatively impact their fishing activities and ability to catch fish. However, there was a sub-group of fishers who opposed the MPA and were more inclined to have negative attitudes towards the rationale behind MPAs, despite the common perception that no-take zones were for fisheries management purposes and could increase fish stocks in the MPA. More experienced fishers were inclined to oppose the MPA, as well as fishers who believed management zones did not provide clear rules for activities, penalties for non-compliance were too harsh, or that no-take zones did not increase fish stocks. An important perceived threat to the MPA was from commercial fishing due to perceptions of over-exploitation and issues of non-compliance. In contrast, the majority of recreational fishers did not believe the collective actions of recreational fishers negatively impacted the marine environment and fish stocks, or the number of fish available for capture in the future. An improved understanding of these social aspects is important to target ongoing management in order to increase acceptance, success and long-term existence of MPAs.

Movements, Home Range and Site Fidelity of Snapper (Chrysophrys auratus) within a Temperate Marine Protected Area.

Understanding the movement dynamics of marine fish provides valuable information that can assist with species management, particularly regarding protection within marine protected areas (MPAs). We performed an acoustic tagging study implemented within the Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park on the mid-north coast of New South Wales, Australia, to assess the movement patterns, home range and diel activity of snapper (Chrysophrys auratus; Sparidae); a species of significant recreational and commercial fishing importance in Australia. The study focused on C. auratus movements around Cabbage Tree Island, which is predominantly a no-take sanctuary zone (no fishing), with an array of acoustic stations deployed around the island and adjacent reefs and islands. Thirty C. auratus were tagged with internal acoustic tags in November 2010 with their movements recorded until September 2014. Both adult and juvenile C. auratus were observed to display strong site fidelity to Cabbage Tree Island with a mean 12-month residency index of 0.83 (range = 0 low to 1 high). Only three fish were detected on acoustic receivers away from Cabbage Tree Island, with one fish moving a considerable distance of ~ 290 kms over a short time frame (46 days). The longest period of residency recorded at the island was for three fish occurring regularly at the site for a period of 1249 days. Chrysophrys auratus displayed strong diurnal behaviour and detection frequency was significantly higher during the day than at night; however, there was no significant difference in detection frequency between different hours. This study demonstrates that even small-scale protected areas can benefit C. auratus during multiple life-history stages as it maintains a small home range and displays strong site fidelity over a period of 3 years.

Developing a habitat classification typology for subtidal habitats in a temperate estuary in New South Wales, Australia

Effective estuarine management depends on adequate data about the ecology, extent and biodiversity of component habitats. However, these data are often scant, as exemplified by the Port Stephens estuary, part of the Port Stephens–Great Lakes Marine Park (NSW, Australia), for which even basic descriptions of habitat types and extent are lacking. Herein we present the results of the first quantitative assessment of subtidal benthic communities within the estuary, involving 130km of towed video transects over an area exceeding 50km2. We identified previously undocumented macroalgae-dominated habitat types and found strong correlations between habitat types and depth. The soft coral Dendronephthya australis habitat is of particular interest because this was found to occur exclusively outside current sanctuary (no take) zones. The habitat map of Port Stephens generated during the study provides the basis for more objective representative planning in future iterations of zoning in the estuarine section of the marine park. The study also suggests that depth may be a useful proxy for estuarine habitat types where specific data are lacking. The classification methodology developed during the study was cost-effective, generated robust data and consequently has potential for wider application in other large estuarine bays.

Distribution and spatial modelling of a soft coral habitat in the Port Stephens–Great Lakes Marine Park: implications for management

Habitat mapping is a useful method for understanding the complex spatial relationships that exist in the marine environment, and is used to evaluate the effectiveness of management strategies, particularly in regards to marine protected areas. This study explored the observed and predicted distribution of an uncommon soft coral species, Dendronephthya australis within the Port Stephens–Great Lakes Marine Park. Dendronephthya australis was mapped by video operated by a SCUBA diver towing a time synchronised GPS. A species distribution model was created to explore the possible occurrence of D. australis outside of the mapped area, using four environmental parameters: bathymetry, slope of seabed, velocity of tidal currents, and distance from estuary mouth. Dendronephthya australis colonies occurred along the southern shoreline in the Port Stephens estuary between Fly Point and Corlette Point, but no colonies were found within sanctuary (no-take) zones within the marine park. The model illustrated limited habitat suitability for D. australis within a larger section of the estuary, suggesting this species has specific environmental requirements survival. Owing to its current threats (anchor damage and fishing line entanglement), implications from these findings will assist future management and protection decisions, particularly in regard to its protection within a marine park.

Obtaining a social licence for MPAs – influences on social acceptability

The biological success of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) depends to a large extent on their social acceptability, sometimes referred to as a social licence. Local resistance has slowed international progress towards a global network of MPAs. The causes of local resistance and limited social acceptability are poorly known, which constrains the development of new planning paradigms that could address these issues. Two case studies in New South Wales, Australia determined the factors that influenced community attitudes towards MPAs. The Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park (PSGLMP) and Batemans Marine Park (BMP) underwent virtually identical and concurrent planning processes, however resistance to the BMP was more intense and sustained. Differences in the demographics, history, local media coverage and social impacts of each marine park contributed to these different community responses. The BMP demonstrated the ‘perfect storm’ of opposition triggers – a community struggling in the transition away from a primary production economy, a highly politicised media dominated by powerful elites with ideological objections to the park, and social impacts sufficiently profound to motivate local citizens to support an active campaign against the park. These impacts included loss of access, identity and increased competition for resources. This research points to the importance of developing a deeper understanding of the social, cultural and political landscape of the communities in which MPAs are proposed and a rethink of planning processes to better incorporate community objectives and knowledge.

Who cares wins: The role of local news and news sources in influencing community responses to marine protected areas

Mass media is a key tool by which environmental interventions, such as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are communicated to the public. The way in which local news outlets present and explain MPAs to local communities is likely to be influential in determining how they respond to the proposal. In particular the tendency of news media to focus on areas of conflict and dispute ensures ideology and politics play a central role in reporting of MPA proposals, often simplifying debate into an ‘us versus them’ or ‘fishers versus conservationists’ ideological conflict. This can lead to the outright rejection of an MPA or undermine acceptance of the park within local communities. The media coverage of two marine parks in NSW, Australia was compared to determine the way in which news presented the parks to each community and how this may have influenced public acceptance of the parks. In particular the study examined the role ideology and politics played in the news coverage of each park by investigating the way in which the news was framed and the positions of key media spokespeople. Media coverage of the Batemans Marine Park appears to have been highly politicised and heavily influenced by the strong convictions of a small handful of prominent spokespeople. By way of contrast media coverage of the Port Stephens Great Lakes Marine Park was more nuanced and drew from a wide range of sources. This research provides insight into how areas of conflict could be reframed as opportunities that enhance MPA planning exercises and highlights how ideology can help shape community sentiment. Acknowledging the role of ideology in contested areas such as these allows for the development of strategies that can accommodate as well as moderate its influence. These strategies may include the incorporation of ‘bottom up’ approaches into MPA planning, the promotion and support of a range of voices within the community, and seeking out and building upon common ground and shared values.

Distribution, relative abundance and size composition of the threatened serranid Epinephelus daemelii in New South Wales, Australia

The aim of this study was to undertake baseline surveys on the distribution, relative abundance and total lengths (LT ) of a threatened epinephelid species, black cod Epinephelus daemelii, in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, their westernmost distribution. Diving surveys at 83 sites where E. daemelii were expected to occur were undertaken from 2009 to 2011 using 45 min roving diver counts. Sites were spread through northern NSW, including Lord Howe Island (LHI). Individual fish were measured using stereo-video, enabling accurate length measurement. Surveys were repeated at a sub-set of sites to assess temporal variation across days, seasons and years. A total of 117 E. daemelii were recorded during baseline surveys, occurring at 42% of the surveyed sites. Across all surveys, the highest numbers recorded (14-18 individuals at a site) were at the outer Solitary Islands and Fish Rock (Smoky Cape). Fewer E. daemelii were found southwards, but two sites in the Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park had consistent numbers (three to six) over four annual surveys. Only 12 E. daemelii were recorded from eight of the 18 sites at LHI. The numbers observed at re-surveyed sites were generally stable over years. There were latitudinal and cross-shelf differences in LT . Individuals in the north were found to be significantly larger than those further south, and fish offshore were significantly larger than those inshore. The largest measured fish was 135 cm, smaller than the maximum LT (c. 170 cm) recorded for this species. The smallest fish was 26 cm. Overall, it is considered that the abundance of E. daemelii is low compared to anecdotal data even though they have been protected for c. 30 years in NSW. These findings provide an essential benchmark to assess ongoing status and response to protective management.

Effectiveness of habitat classes as surrogates for biodiversity in marine reserve planning

AbstractSurrogates are used in marine conservation planning when there is limited information on the distribution of biodiversity, and representation of species and assemblage diversity are conservation goals. With prior confirmation of their relationship to spatial variation in biodiversity, habitat classification schemes are a potentially useful surrogate.Polychaetes can comprise over one‐third of species of benthic infaunal assemblages, they are the most frequent and abundant marine metazoans in benthic environments, and they are a reliable surrogate for other macrobenthic taxa.It was tested whether polychaete biodiversity differed among six estuarine habitat classes defined for conservation planning in the Port Stephens–Great Lakes Marine Park, New South Wales, Australia: subtidal sand, mud, muddy sand, and seagrass beds comprisingPosidonia australis,Zostera capricorniand mixedPosidonia/Zostera. Polychaetes were sampled from replicate sites in each habitat and differences among habitat classes in species richness, abundance, and assemblage structure were examined. Several environmental variables, known to be important determinants of polychaete distribution, were also quantified at each site.Ninety‐five species of polychaetes (belonging to 35 families) were identified. Species richness and abundance did not differ among the habitat classes. Polychaete assemblages of subtidal sand differed from assemblages in both mud and muddy sand, however, assemblages in all other habitats were not different. A combination of some of the measured environmental variables (distance to the estuary entrance, depth, sediment grain size) was a more important determinant of assemblage variation than the habitat classes.Using these predictors, an alternative habitat classification scheme to the scheme currently utilized in marine park planning is proposed.This study demonstrates the critical importance of testing assumptions about surrogacy and an approach for refining surrogates.Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Understanding marine park opposition: the relationship between social impacts, environmental knowledge and motivation to fish

Abstract Marine protected areas (MPAs), are being vigorously pursued globally but meeting significant resistance at a local level. Despite this, there is limited research into the factors that drive this resistance. The Port Stephens–Great Lakes Marine Park (PSGLMP) and Batemans Marine Park (BMP), both situated in New South Wales (NSW) Australia, were established in December 2005 and April 2006 respectively. Both generated significant controversy and hostility, particularly from the recreational fishing sector. The controversy surrounding the declaration of these and other NSW marine parks continues and has been the subject of intense political interest and government enquiry. Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with recreational, professional and indigenous fishers. They explored the social impacts of the declaration of PSGLMP and BMP and their link to marine park opposition. Opponents felt the marine parks had resulted in a variety of negative impacts ranging from a loss of enjoyment and convenience through to more serious impacts on wellbeing, livelihood and culture. Examination of the reasons why interview subjects participated in fishing provided further insight into their perception of the marine park and the impacts resulting from the declaration. Opposition to MPAs, however, cannot be explained by impact alone. All the marine park opponents interviewed represented themselves as ‘knowledge holders’ about their local marine area. This knowledge – predominately ‘fish’ knowledge – appears to have conflicted with a policy position which places biodiversity conservation as the primary objective of MPAs. This has led to a perception that the practical knowledge of users was not valued in the planning of each marine park. Incorporation of the goals and objectives of local communities into the development of MPA proposals may provide communities with a greater sense of ownership. Considering motivation to fish may allow for the development of more holistic management responses to mitigate and compensate users for social impacts that may arise from any necessary trade‐offs between these often competing objectives. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Biodiversity value of a geographically restricted soft coral species within a temperate estuary

ABSTRACT A threatened and uncommon soft coral species, Dendronephthya australis found in large abundance in Port Stephens, within the Port Stephens–Great Lakes Marine Park (PSGLMP), New South Wales, Australia, was hypothesized to be an important habitat for many marine fishes and invertebrates, but is currently under threat from boat anchors, fishing debris entanglement and sand inundation. Surveys were undertaken to assess the biodiversity associated with the soft coral habitat and its adjacent habitats (sponge, seagrass and unvegetated sand), using a combination of Underwater Visual Census (UVC) and Baited Remote Underwater Video System (BRUVS) techniques. In total, 77 fish species and 21 invertebrate species utilized the D. australis habitat, and multivariate fish assemblages associated with soft corals were significantly different to those associated with nearby sponges, seagrass and sand habitats. Species richness of fishes and invertebrates were significantly higher in soft coral and sponge habitats than seagrass. The D. australis habitat was found to be of high importance to juvenile snapper (Pagrus auratus: Sparidae), a species of recreational and commercial fishery importance, which occurred in highest abundance within D. australis, and were significantly smaller in size within the soft coral habitat than the adjacent sponge habitat. Evidently, this rare soft coral habitat supports an extensive marine assemblage, potentially providing a valuable source of food and shelter for fishes and invertebrates, and given it is threatened by human‐induced impacts, its protection should be a priority. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

How does Australia’s largest dolphin-watching industry affect the behaviour of a small and resident population of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins?

The small, genetically distinct population of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in Port Stephens, New South Wales (NSW), is the target of the largest dolphin-watching industry in Australia and is located within the Port Stephens - Great Lakes Marine Park that was created in 2005. The effects of this industry have been identified as of significant management importance by the Marine Parks Authority NSW. Accordingly, the impact of commercial dolphin-watching boats was investigated from boat-based surveys from August 2008 to August 2009. Presence of dolphin-watching boats altered both the dolphins' behavioural states and activity budgets. Dolphins spent 66.5% less time feeding and 44.2% less time socialising, spent four times more milling, and were never observed to rest in the presence of dolphin-watching boats. Moreover, dolphin groups were more cohesive during dolphin-watching boat encounters and dolphins tended to avoid tour boats. These effects were exacerbated as the number of boats increased and the distance from boats decreased. The rate of approach was high with boats approaching each dolphin group three times per day in winter and six times in summer. Moreover, groups of dolphins with newborns were approached closer than state regulated minimum approach distances in nine out of ten encounters. Globally, dolphin-watching industries frequent small resident groups of coastal dolphins and effects are likely to be similar. We suggest that existing controls are inadequate and that these together with additional regulations be enforced by a regular presence of authorities. We suggest no more than one dolphin-watching boat within 50 m of a group of dolphins, or 100 m if calves are present. Operating times of dolphin-watching boats should be restricted in numbers after 1 pm, i.e., during preferred foraging times for dolphins. Additionally, exclusion zones should be considered to reduce pressure on dolphins undertaking critical activities such as feeding and resting. We recommend monitoring the effectiveness of new regulations that are incorporated in the reviewed marine park management plan in 2012 for a period of three years.

Are Speed Restriction Zones an effective management tool for minimising impacts of boats on dolphins in an Australian marine park?

Abstract The small, genetically distinct population of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops aduncus ) in Port Stephens, New South Wales (NSW), is the target of the largest dolphin-watching industry in Australia and falls within the recently created Port Stephens—Great Lakes Marine Park. The effectiveness of Speed Restriction Zones (SRZs) as a management tool in this area was investigated during their second year of implementation by comparing dolphin usage and behaviour to adjacent Control Zones (CZs) of similar habitat. For this purpose, boat-based surveys and focal follows of dolphin groups were carried out in the zones between August 2008 and August 2009. Results showed that SRZs were more intensely used by dolphin-watching boats in summer. There was no change in dolphins’ behaviour and group structure in the presence of dolphin-watching boats in SRZs when compared to dolphin groups within CZs in any season. Dolphin groups including calves used SRZs less during summer. The latter may indicate a shift in area utilisation for those groups during intense boat traffic by dolphin-watching operators. CZs were more important than SRZs as foraging grounds for dolphins in summer. This indicates that SRZs as specified are not effective at minimising boating impacts and that the location of these zones should in time be revised. This is important information for management of dolphin-watching within this marine park and an example of adaptive management in progress. Moreover these results are relevant for conservation of dolphins and the management of dolphin-watching industries elsewhere, particularly new industries, where management strategies may incorporate marine protected areas including zoning plans.

Optimizing voluntary compliance in marine protected areas: A comparison of recreational fisher and enforcement officer perspectives using multi-criteria analysis

A comprehensive list of planning criteria for optimizing compliance in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) was compiled and used to compare the views of recreational fishers and compliance officers for facilitating voluntary compliance in the Port Stephens – Great Lakes Marine Park (PSGLMP). Expert working groups were tasked separately with: 1) criteria identification and weighting; 2) scoring of no-take zones; 3) prioritizing and determining uncertainty; and 4) analysis of results and sensitivity testing. Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) revealed that both groups had similar perspectives and recommendations, despite weighting the individual planning criteria differently. Significantly, “manageability” scores for no-take zones from MCA appeared to correlate well with past numbers of enforcement actions recorded for each zone. This provides empirical evidence that adopting manageability criteria during the planning of MPAs could lead to a marked increase in voluntary compliance. As a result, greater consideration to compliance planning during MPA design and zoning is recommended in order to optimize voluntary compliance. Whilst the majority of no-take zones in the PSGLMP case study were evaluated as being relatively effective in terms of optimizing voluntary compliance, there remains considerable potential to improve design, management and use of the poorer performing zones. Finally, the study highlighted the value of recreational fisher engagement in MPA planning processes to maximize voluntary compliance and manageability.

Distance does matter: close approaches by boats impede feeding and resting behaviour of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins

Context Potential impacts of human disturbance on animal populations can be measured as behavioural responses and may affect the survival and fecundity of animals. In areas where human–wildlife interactions occur, conservation management needs to be in place to secure both a viable tourism industry and the sustainability of the targeted species. Aims We sought to evaluate whether different approach distances by boat have effects on the behaviour and group cohesion of dolphins that are targeted by Australia’s largest dolphin-watching industry. Methods The effects of different approach distances of boats on the behavioural states of dolphins, group dispersal and direction of movement were investigated in this area by controlled boat experiments conducted between August 2008 and December 2009. Key results Results showed that there was significantly less feeding when boats approached dolphin groups to a distance of 50 m than when they did to a distance of 150 m, or with controlled approaches. Resting was also observed significantly less when boats approached to a distance of 50 m than when they approached to a distance of 150 m. The dispersal of dolphin groups was significantly tighter (less dispersed) when boats approached to 50 m than that with 150-m-distance or controlled approaches. Furthermore, the dolphins’ direction of movement was less neutral when the experimental boat approaches were carried out at a distance of 50 m than when they were carried out at a distance of 150 m, or with controlled approaches. Similar results were also obtained for dolphin groups including calves. Conclusions On the basis of the results from this study, we recommend that the existing New South Wales regulations, which stipulate that dolphin-watching boats keep a distance of 50 m to groups with adults only and 150 m to groups with calves, are maintained within the Port Stephens–Great Lakes Marine Park (PSGLMP). Implications Management plans whose stated goals include both sustainability of a dolphin-watching industry and longer-term viability of a dolphin population may reconcile conflicting objectives and improve their decision making by using these empirical measures rather than best guesses.

Spatial patterns of ascidian assemblages on subtidal rocky reefs in the Port Stephens - Great Lakes Marine Park, New South Wales

Spatial and temporal patterns of variability in ascidian assemblages were investigated on horizontal subtidal rocky reefs at Port Stephens, New South Wales (NSW). The study was designed to provide a baseline dataset on ascidian diversity and distribution patterns for an area destined to become a marine park (the Port Stephens–Great Lakes Marine Park: PSGLMP). Differences in ascidian assemblages between exposed oceanic island reefs and sheltered reefs within Port Stephens, and between two depth zones within each subtidal reef, were quantified using non-parametric multivariate techniques coupled with analysis of variance (ANOVA). Ascidian assemblages were highly variable between reef sites, reef exposures and particularly between depth zones within each reef surveyed. However, temporal variation was only observed for a few ascidian species. These highly variable spatial patterns in diversity indicate that numerous subtidal reefs may need to be protected within PSGLMP if the aim of the marine park is to adequately represent the entire array of marine biodiversity in the area.