Lagenorhynchus Obliquidens Research Articles

Cetaceans of Southeast Alaska: distribution and seasonal occurrence

AbstractAim To assess the distribution, group size, seasonal occurrence and annual trends of cetaceans.Location The study area included all major inland waters of Southeast Alaska.Methods Between 1991 and 2007, cetacean surveys were conducted by observers who kept a constant watch when the vessel was underway and recorded all cetaceans encountered. For each species, we examined distributional patterns, group size, seasonal occurrence and annual trends. Analysis of variance (anovaF) was used to test for differences in group sizes between multiple means, and Student’s t‐test was used to detect differences between pairwise means. Cetacean seasonal occurrence and annual trends were investigated using a generalized linear model framework.Results Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) were seen throughout the region, with numbers lowest in spring and highest in the fall. Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) and minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) distributions were more restricted than that reported for humpback whales, and the low number of sightings precluded evaluating seasonal trends. Three killer whale (Orcinus orca) eco‐types were documented with distributions occurring throughout inland waters. Seasonal patterns were not detected or could not be evaluated for resident and offshore killer whales, respectively; however, the transient eco‐type was more abundant in the summer. Dall’s porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli) were distributed throughout the region, with more sightings in spring and summer than in fall. Harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) distribution was clumped, with concentrations occurring in the Icy Strait/Glacier Bay and Wrangell areas and with no evidence of seasonality. Pacific white‐sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens) were observed only occasionally, with more sightings in the spring. For most species, group size varied on both an annual and seasonal basis.Main conclusions Seven cetacean species occupy the inland waters of Southeast Alaska, with distribution, group size, seasonal occurrence and annual trends varying by species. Future studies that compare spatial and temporal patterns with other features (e.g. oceanography, prey resources) may help in identifying the key factors that support the high density and biodiversity of cetaceans found in this region. An increased understanding of the region’s marine ecology is an essential step towards ensuring the long‐term conservation of cetaceans in Southeast Alaska.

Sequence analysis of dolphin ferritin H and L subunits and possible iron-dependent translational control of dolphin ferritin gene

BackgroundIron-storage protein, ferritin plays a central role in iron metabolism. Ferritin has dual function to store iron and segregate iron for protection of iron-catalyzed reactive oxygen species. Tissue ferritin is composed of two kinds of subunits (H: heavy chain or heart-type subunit; L: light chain or liver-type subunit). Ferritin gene expression is controlled at translational level in iron-dependent manner or at transcriptional level in iron-independent manner. However, sequencing analysis of marine mammalian ferritin subunits has not yet been performed fully. The purpose of this study is to reveal cDNA-derived amino acid sequences of cetacean ferritin H and L subunits, and demonstrate the possibility of expression of these subunits, especially H subunit, by iron.MethodsSequence analyses of cetacean ferritin H and L subunits were performed by direct sequencing of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) fragments from cDNAs generated via reverse transcription-PCR of leukocyte total RNA prepared from blood samples of six different dolphin species (Pseudorca crassidens, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, Grampus griseus, Globicephala macrorhynchus, Tursiops truncatus, and Delphinapterus leucas). The putative iron-responsive element sequence in the 5'-untranslated region of the six different dolphin species was revealed by direct sequencing of PCR fragments obtained using leukocyte genomic DNA.ResultsDolphin H and L subunits consist of 182 and 174 amino acids, respectively, and amino acid sequence identities of ferritin subunits among these dolphins are highly conserved (H: 99–100%, (99→98) ; L: 98–100%). The conserved 28 bp IRE sequence was located -144 bp upstream from the initiation codon in the six different dolphin species.ConclusionThese results indicate that six different dolphin species have conserved ferritin sequences, and suggest that these genes are iron-dependently expressed.

Potential limits to anthropogenic mortality of small cetaceans in coastal waters of British Columbia

Small cetaceans are by-caught in salmon gillnet fisheries in British Columbia (BC) waters. In Canada, there is currently no generic calculation to identify when management action is necessary to reduce cetacean bycatch below sustainable limits. We estimated potential anthropogenic mortality limits for harbour ( Phocoena phocoena ) and Dall’s ( Phocoenoides dalli ) porpoises and Pacific white-sided dolphins ( Lagenorhynchus obliquidens ) using quantitative objectives from two well-established frameworks for conservation and management (the United States’ Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas), which are similar to some management objectives developed for marine mammal stocks elsewhere in Canada. Limits were calculated as functions of (i) a minimum abundance estimate (2004–2005); (ii) maximum rate of population increase; and (iii) uncertainty factors to account for bias in abundance estimates and uncertainty in mortality estimates. Best estimates of bycatch mortality in 2004 and 2005 exceeded only the most precautionary limits and only for porpoise species. Future research priority should be given to determining small cetacean stock structure in BC and refining species-specific entanglement rates in these and other fisheries. The approach offers a quantitative framework for Canada to meet its stated objectives to maintain favourable conservation status of cetacean populations.

Classification of Risso’s and Pacific white-sided dolphins using spectral properties of echolocation clicks

The spectral and temporal properties of echolocation clicks and the use of clicks for species classification are investigated for five species of free-ranging dolphins found offshore of southern California: short-beaked common (Delphinus delphis), long-beaked common (D. capensis), Risso's (Grampus griseus), Pacific white-sided (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), and bottlenose (Tursiops truncatus) dolphins. Spectral properties are compared among the five species and unique spectral peak and notch patterns are described for two species. The spectral peak mean values from Pacific white-sided dolphin clicks are 22.2, 26.6, 33.7, and 37.3 kHz and from Risso's dolphins are 22.4, 25.5, 30.5, and 38.8 kHz. The spectral notch mean values from Pacific white-sided dolphin clicks are 19.0, 24.5, and 29.7 kHz and from Risso's dolphins are 19.6, 27.7, and 35.9 kHz. Analysis of variance analyses indicate that spectral peaks and notches within the frequency band 24-35 kHz are distinct between the two species and exhibit low variation within each species. Post hoc tests divide Pacific white-sided dolphin recordings into two distinct subsets containing different click types, which are hypothesized to represent the different populations that occur within the region. Bottlenose and common dolphin clicks do not show consistent patterns of spectral peaks or notches within the frequency band examined (1-100 kHz).

Long‐term Passive Acoustic Monitoring of Delphinids in the Southern California Bight

Spectral characteristics of clicks are described for five species of delphinids in the Southern California Bight (long‐beaked common dolphins, Delphinus capensis, short‐beaked common dolphins, Delphinus delphis, Risso's dolphins, Grampus griseus, Pacific white‐sided dolphins, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, and bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus). Recent technological advancements allow long‐term, broadband (100 kHz bandwidth), passive acoustic monitoring from autonomous sea‐floor mounted instruments. The ability to record higher frequencies allows study of a broader range of odontocete vocalizations including echolocation clicks. To determine whether delphinid species could be identified by their clicks, concurrent ship‐based visual and acoustic surveys were conducted. We find that clicks from Pacific white‐sided and Risso's dolphins contain spectral peaks and notches that are unique and consistent for each species. These spectral patterns are also apparent in long‐term autonomous acoustic recordings throughout the Southern California Bight. Utilizing this spectral classification method, we examine of diel, seasonal, and habitat use patterns of acoustically active Risso's and Pacific white‐sided dolphins. The ability to monitor animals through the night provides insight into distinct diel patterns of acoustic activity for both species while the high temporal resolution acoustic data can be used to relate oceanographic time series to dolphin activity.

Quantitation of leukocyte gene expression in cetaceans

Real-time quantitation of cytokine mRNA is a routine immunologic technique, especially fitting for use in those species for which monoclonal antibodies are not available. Quantitative gene expression assays were developed to assist in the immunologic assessment of three cetacean species including bottlenosed dolphins, Pacific white-sided dolphins and beluga whales. Nine cytokine genes (IL-2, -4, -10, -12, -13, -18, TNFalpha, TGFbeta and IFNgamma) and Cox-2 were selected for analysis. Most mitogen-induced mononuclear leukocyte responses were similar between the three cetacean species with either up- or down-regulation of cytokine genes. IL-10 expression was highly variable between species. No TH/1TH2 polarization was evident. Cytokine gene analysis has the potential to identify immune system perturbations induced by environmental insult as well as providing diagnostic tools for characterizing immune responses to environmental antigens and vaccines.

Seasonal change of the appearance of Pacific white-sided dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens in the Tsugaru Strait, Japan

Seasonal change of the appearance of Pacific white-sided dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens in the Tsugaru Strait, Japan

Natriuretic Peptides in Cetaceans: Identification, Molecular Characterization and Changes in Plasma Concentration After Landing

Dolphins are aquatic animals free from gravity, and this may have imposed significant changes in their cardiovascular status and its hormonal regulation compared with terrestrial animals. This study molecularly characterized two major cardiovascular hormones, atrial and B-type natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP) and measured their changes in dolphin plasma concentrations in relation to the cardiovascular status of the animal. We initially identified ANP and BNP in three species of dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, Phocoenoides dalli and Tursiops truncatus). ANP precursors are highly conserved in most mammals, but dolphin BNP precursors were more variable. In molecular phylogenetic analyses, dolphin ANP and BNP precursors grouped with those of artiodactyls, particularly to the camel peptides. The chromatographic characterization of tissue and plasma molecular forms using specific radioimmunoassays showed that the predominant ANP and BNP in the atrium are prohormone and mature peptide, respectively, whereas mature ANP and BNP are circulating in the dolphin blood. A mass spectrometric analysis showed that atrial BNP consists of 26 amino acids, rather than the 32-amino-acid form detected in other mammals. Finally, changes in plasma ANP and BNP concentrations were examined in captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) after their pool was drained. Plasma ANP and BNP concentrations did not change after landing, unlike terrestrial mammals. Plasma angiotensin II and cortisol concentrations did not change either, showing minor stress after landing. Since landed dolphins show a different cardiovascular status on land than terrestrial mammals, plasma ANP and BNP concentrations seem to reflect the cardiovascular status characteristic of dolphins.

Histology and morphometrics of testes of the white-sided dolphin ( Lagenorhynchus acutus) in bycatch samples from the northeastern Atlantic

The testes of 31 Atlantic white-sided dolphins, Lagenorhynchus acutus bycaught in the northeastern Atlantic were studied by histological and morphometric techniques. Twenty specimens were classified as mature, nine as immature and two as pubescent. Between immature and mature specimens there were overlappings in body length and body weight, but clear differences in the diameter of seminiferous tubules (<80 and >80 μm) and the proportion of seminiferous tubules to interstitial tissue (ST:INT-ratio). Also relative testes weight differed clearly. The pubescent specimens showed intermediate characteristics. Spermatogenetic activity of mature dolphins ranged from quiescent to different degrees of activity and varied even in animals from the same site and capture date. The fact that we found mature males with quiescent testes suggests a seasonal rather than a continuous spermatogenesis. We assume that sexual activity in L. acutus begins at an age of 7–8 GLGs and that the reproductive season of this species in the northeastern Atlantic starts in February. Further, the ultrastructure of the spermatozoon is similar to that of the related Lagenorhynchus obliquidens.

Gaussian mixture model classification of odontocetes in the Southern California Bight and the Gulf of California

A method for the automatic classification of free-ranging delphinid vocalizations is presented. The vocalizations of short-beaked and long-beaked common (Delphinus delphis and Delphinus capensis), Pacific white-sided (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), and bottlenose (Tursiops truncatus) dolphins were recorded in a pelagic environment of the Southern California Bight and the Gulf of California over a period of 4 years. Cepstral feature vectors are extracted from call data which contain simultaneous overlapping whistles, burst-pulses, and clicks from a single species. These features are grouped into multisecond segments. A portion of the data is used to train Gaussian mixture models of varying orders for each species. The remaining call data are used to test the performance of the models. Species are predicted based upon probabilistic measures of model similarity with test segment groups having durations between 1 and 25 s. For this data set, 256 mixture Gaussian mixture models and segments of at least 10 s of call data resulted in the best classification results. The classifier predicts the species of groups with 67%-75% accuracy depending upon the partitioning of the training and test data.

DETERMINING PREGNANCY FROM BLUBBER IN THREE SPECIES OF DELPHINIDS

AbstractWe quantified progesterone in 110 blubber samples from dolphins of known reproductive status in order to test the accuracy of a method to determine pregnancy status in wild cetaceans. The samples were collected from fishery‐bycaught delphinids of three species (Delphinus delphis, Lissodelphis borealis, and Lagenorhynchus obliquidens). We ascertained that blubber progesterone concentrations could clearly distinguish pregnant D. delphis (range 132–415 ng/g, mean 261 ng/g) from non‐pregnant mature and immature ones (range 0.92–48.2 ng/g, mean 15.2 ng/g). We found similar dramatic differences in L. borealis and L. obliquidens. These results were insensitive to various blubber sampling depths and anatomical sampling locations on the body, suggesting relative homogeneity of progesterone levels throughout the blubber. However, no trend was found in blubber progesterone concentration with fetal length, indicating that although blubber progesterone appears to distinguish pregnancy status, it is unlikely to differentiate pregnancy stage. Based on the findings presented here we suggest that this method, when coupled with projectile biopsy procedures, can be used to assess the pregnancy status of free‐ranging cetaceans and thus provide a new tool to determine pregnancy rates of wild populations.

Diel patterns in underwater sounds produced by beluga whales and Pacific white‐sided dolphins at John G. Shedd Aquarium

Diel patterns in underwater sounds from five beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) and five Pacific white‐sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens) housed at John G. Shedd Aquarium in Chicago, IL were studied. Underwater sounds were sampled systematically over 24‐h periods by using a battery‐operated cassette recorder and an Ithaco 605C hydrophone controlled by a digital timer, which activated every hour and then shut off after 2.5 min. Belugas had 14 sounds and Pacific white‐sided dolphins produced 5 sounds. For each species, the use of some sounds was correlated with other sounds. The diel pattern for both species was similar and mostly affected by the presence of humans. Sounds gradually increased after the staff and visitors arrived, peaked during the midday, gradually decreased as closing of the aquarium approached, and was minimal overnight. These data can help identify the best time of day to make recordings and perhaps could be used to examine social, reproductive, or health changes in these captive cetaceans.

Cetacean distributions relative to ocean processes in the northern California Current System

Abstract Associations between cetacean distributions, oceanographic features, and bioacoustic backscatter were examined during two process cruises in the northern California Current System (CCS) during late spring and summer 2000. Line-transect surveys of cetaceans were conducted across the shelf and slope, out to 150 km offshore from Newport, Oregon (44.6°N) to Crescent City, California (41.9°N), in conjunction with multidisciplinary mesoscale and fine-scale surveys of ocean and ecosystem structure. Occurrence patterns (presence/absence) of cetaceans were compared with hydrographic and ecological variables (e.g., sea surface salinity, sea surface temperature, thermocline depth, halocline depth, chlorophyll maximum, distance to the center of the equatorward jet, distance to the shoreward edge of the upwelling front, and acoustic backscatter at 38, 120, 200 and 420 kHz) derived from a towed, undulating array and a bioacoustic system. Using a multiple logistic regression model, 60.2% and 94.4% of the variation in occurrence patterns of humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae during late spring and summer, respectively, were explained. Sea surface temperature, depth, and distance to the alongshore upwelling front were the most important environmental variables during June, when humpbacks occurred over the slope (200–2000 m). During August, when humpbacks concentrated over a submarine bank (Heceta Bank) and off Cape Blanco, sea surface salinity was the most important variable, followed by latitude and depth. Humpbacks did not occur in the lowest salinity water of the Columbia River plume. For harbor porpoise Phocoena phocoena, the model explained 79.2% and 70.1% of the variation in their occurrence patterns during June and August, respectively. During spring, latitude, sea surface salinity, and thermocline gradient were the most important predictors. During summer, latitude and distance to the inshore edge of the upwelling front were the most important variables. Typically a coastal species, harbor porpoises extended their distribution farther offshore at Heceta Bank and at Cape Blanco, where they were associated with the higher chlorophyll concentrations in these regions. Pacific white-sided dolphin Lagenorhynchus obliquidens was the most numerous small cetacean in early June, but was rare during August. The model explained 44.5% of the variation in their occurrence pattern, which was best described by distance to the upwelling front and acoustic backscatter at 38 kHz. The model of the occurrence pattern of Dall's porpoise Phocoenoides dalli was more successful when mesoscale variability in the CCS was higher during summer. Thus, the responses of cetaceans to biophysical features and upwelling processes in the northern CCS were both seasonally and spatially specific. Heceta Bank and associated flow-topography interactions were very important to a cascade of trophic dynamics that ultimately influenced the distribution of foraging cetaceans. The higher productivity associated with upwelling near Cape Blanco also had a strong influence on the distribution of cetaceans.

Marine mammal occurrence and ocean climate off central California, 1986 to 1994 and 1997 to 1999

The California Current System (CCS), a highly variable eastern boundary system, sup- ports a rich marine mammal fauna. Variation in local coastal upwelling, coupled with larger scale processes (El Nino/La Nina) affects the productivity and distribution of marine species at all trophic levels. Herein, we present an analysis of the occurrence patterns of marine mammals in the central CCS and relate these patterns to changing ocean climate and prey availability. Data on marine mammal distributions, ocean conditions, and prey availability were collected in waters overlying the continental shelf and slope from Bodega to Monterey Bays, from 1986 to 1994 and 1997 to 1999. Occurrence patterns were investigated using geographical information system (GIS), percent simi- larity index (PSI), multiple logistic regression, and principal component analyses. Spatial patterns of the most frequently sighted species (California sea lion Zalophus californianus, northern fur seal Callorhinus ursinus, Pacific white-sided dolphin Lagenorhyncus obliquidens, Dall's porpoise Pho- coenoides dalli, harbor porpoise Phocoena phocoena,and humpback whale Megaptera novaean- gliae) were related to bathymetry and changing ocean climate, and were likely to have been medi- ated by changes in prey availability. Temporal changes were related to migration and significant differences in ocean structure resulting from both local and large-scale processes.

Automatic species identification of odontocete calls in the Southern California Bight

In this work, a method for the automatic classification of odontocete species from their vocalizations is presented. We consider the vocalizations of three dolphin species which were recorded in a pelagic environment of the southern California Bight over a period of approximately three years. 57B naval sonobuoys sampling at 48 kHz were used to record the calls of common (Delphinus delphis), Risso’s (Grampus griseus) and Pacific white-sided (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens) dolphins. In this study, approximately 3 h of calls were selected, with a disproportionate number of common dolphin calls appearing. An emphasis has been made on classifying calls across recording sessions, thus illustrating the system’s ability to perform classification in different acoustic environments with a high likelihood of different individuals performing the vocalizations. Cepstral feature vectors are extracted from manually endpointed call data and classified using a Gaussian mixture model system. The performance of the automatic classification compares favorably with human performance.

Population Differentiation in the Pacific White-sided Dolphin Lagenorhynchus obliquidens Inferred from Mitochondrial DNA and Microsatellite Analyses

We investigated genetic diversity and differentiation of the Pacific white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens) in Japanese coastal waters and offshore North Pacific by analyzing mitochondrial DNA and nuclear microsatellite variation. A total of 519 bp of the mitochondrial control region was sequenced and five microsatellite locus were genotyped for 59 individuals. A high level of haplotypic diversity (h=96.1%), moderate level of nucleotide diversity (pi=1.65%) and average expected heterozygosity (HE=0.66-0.76) were within an extent of those reported for other odontocetes. Consistent genetic difference between the samples from Japanese coastal Pacific-Sea of Japan and offshore North Pacific was indicated by analyses of molecular variance (AMOVAs) based on mtDNA and microsatellite variations, comparison of genetic variabilities, and geographical distributions of mtDNA haplotypes and microsatellite alleles. This result suggests that Pacific white-sided dolphins in each of the above two areas belong to different populations between which gene flow has been severely restricted. The low genetic diversity and mtDNA genealogy of the population in Japanese coastal waters suggest that it originated from a small population that colonized the Sea of Japan or that experienced population reduction when this Sea was isolated from the North Pacific during a glacial period in the Late Pleistocene.

Marine bird and cetacean associations with bathymetric habitats and shallow-water topographies: implications for trophic transfer and conservation

We investigated the aggregative response of marine birds and cetaceans to bathymetric features in central California over 4 years, 1996–1997 and 2001–2002. A total of 1700 km 2 of ocean habitat was surveyed over six cruises. We considered the distribution of the most abundant marine birds and mammals in relation to bathymetry. We focused our analyses on eight focal taxa: Cassin's auklet ( Ptychoramphus aleuticus), common murre ( Uria aalge), sooty shearwater ( Puffinus grieus), phalarope species (red, and red-necked: Phalaropus fulicaria, Phalaropus lobatus), Dall's porpoise ( Phocoenoides dalli), Pacific white-sided dolphin ( Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), humpback whale ( Megaptera novaeangliae), and Risso's dolphin ( Grampus griseus). We evaluated associations of top predators with seven bathymetric indices and three distance measurements to shallow-water topographies. The bathymetric descriptors included (1) median depth, (2) depth coefficient of variation, (3) contour index, and shortest distance to (4) the mainland, (5) the continental shelf-break (200-m isobath), (6) the continental slope (1000-m isobath), and (7) pelagic waters (3000-m isobath). The measurements of shallow water topographies included the shortest distance to: (8) the Cordell Bank seamount, (9) the Farallon Island Archipelago (a breeding colony for auklets and murres), and (10) Monterey Canyon. We documented two instances of spatial autocorrelation (for Cassin's auklet and common murre) at lags (distances) of 0–3 and 3–9 km, respectively, and accounted for this spatial pattern in analyses of habitat associations. We found similar relationships between cetaceans and bathymetric features at both interannual and weekly time scales. Seabirds revealed both persistent and variable relationships through time. For the resident breeding murres, we detected an interannual trend in habitat use, with these birds shifting their distribution offshore over time. Our study demonstrates that resident and migrant marine birds and cetaceans are associated with bathymetric features and shallow-water topographies, though responses varied across species and time. In spite of this variability, we contend that bathymetric associations of upper trophic-level predators can help delineate sites of elevated trophic transfer. An understanding of marine productivity and predator aggregation patterns is essential to design ecosystem-level conservation plans for protecting marine habitats and species.

Marine bird and cetacean associations with bathymetric habitats and shallow-water topographies: implications for trophic transfer and conservation

We investigated the aggregative response of marine birds and cetaceans to bathymetric features in central California over 4 years, 1996–1997 and 2001–2002. A total of 1700 km2 of ocean habitat was surveyed over six cruises. We considered the distribution of the most abundant marine birds and mammals in relation to bathymetry. We focused our analyses on eight focal taxa: Cassin's auklet (Ptychoramphus aleuticus), common murre (Uria aalge), sooty shearwater (Puffinus grieus), phalarope species (red, and red-necked: Phalaropus fulicaria, Phalaropus lobatus), Dall's porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli), Pacific white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), and Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus). We evaluated associations of top predators with seven bathymetric indices and three distance measurements to shallow-water topographies. The bathymetric descriptors included (1) median depth, (2) depth coefficient of variation, (3) contour index, and shortest distance to (4) the mainland, (5) the continental shelf-break (200-m isobath), (6) the continental slope (1000-m isobath), and (7) pelagic waters (3000-m isobath). The measurements of shallow water topographies included the shortest distance to: (8) the Cordell Bank seamount, (9) the Farallon Island Archipelago (a breeding colony for auklets and murres), and (10) Monterey Canyon. We documented two instances of spatial autocorrelation (for Cassin's auklet and common murre) at lags (distances) of 0–3 and 3–9 km, respectively, and accounted for this spatial pattern in analyses of habitat associations. We found similar relationships between cetaceans and bathymetric features at both interannual and weekly time scales. Seabirds revealed both persistent and variable relationships through time. For the resident breeding murres, we detected an interannual trend in habitat use, with these birds shifting their distribution offshore over time. Our study demonstrates that resident and migrant marine birds and cetaceans are associated with bathymetric features and shallow-water topographies, though responses varied across species and time. In spite of this variability, we contend that bathymetric associations of upper trophic-level predators can help delineate sites of elevated trophic transfer. An understanding of marine productivity and predator aggregation patterns is essential to design ecosystem-level conservation plans for protecting marine habitats and species.

STABILIZATION MECHANISM IN SWIMMING ODONTOCETE CETACEANS BY PHASED MOVEMENTS

AbstractPropulsive movements of the caudal oscillating flukes produce large forces that could induce equally large recoil forces at the cranial end of the animal, and, thus, affect stability. To examine these vertical oscillations, video analysis was used to measure the motions of the rostrum, pectoral flipper, caudal peduncle, and fluke tip for seven odontocete cetaceans: Delphinapterus leucas, Globicephala melaena, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, Orcinus orca, Pseudorca crassidens, Stenella plagiodon, and Tursiops truncatus. Animals swam over a range of speeds of 1.4–7.30 m/sec. For each species, oscillatory frequency of the fluke tip increased linearly with swimming speed. Peak‐to‐peak amplitude at each body position remained constant with respect to swimming speed for all species. Mean peak‐to‐peak amplitude ranged from 0.02 to 0.06 body length at the rostrum and from 0.17 to 0.25 body length at the fluke tip. The phase relationships between the various body components remain constant with respect to swimming speed. Oscillations of the rostrum were nearly in phase with the fluke tip with phase differences out of—9.4°‐33.0° of a cycle period of 360°. Pectoral flipper oscillations trailed fluke oscillations by 60.9°‐123.4°. The lower range in amplitude at the rostrum compared to the fluke tip reflects increased resistance to vertical oscillation at the cranial end, which enhances the animal's stability. This resistance is likely due to both active and passive increased body stiffness, resistance on the flippers, phased movements of body components, and use of a lift‐based propulsion. Collectively, these mechanisms stabilize the body of cetaceans during active swimming, which can reduce locomotor energy expenditure and reduce excessive motions of the head affecting sensory capabilities.

Evoked potential measurement of the masked hearing threshold of a Pacific white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens)

The masked hearing threshold of a Pacific white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens) was determined by measuring the animal’s auditory brainstem response (ABR). The dolphin was trained to wear surface-contact electrodes embedded in suction cups and to swim into a hoop centered at 1 m below the water surface facing a sound projector 5 m away. Broadband transient signals with center frequencies of 8, 16, 32, 64, 80, and 100 kHz were used as the stimuli. ABR signals were measured by digitizing the electrode signals in 32 point blocks at a sampling rate of 20 kHz. Five hundred blocks were averaged in order to obtain an ABR. The response latency for suprathreshold threshold signals was approximately 1.9 ms with the highest peak-to-peak ABR amplitude of approximately 2.8 uV occurring for a signal frequency of 64 kHz. The spectrum of the ABR signal was similar to that of Tursiops truncatus, with a major peak at 1120 Hz and a secondary peak at 664 Hz. Threshold was determined by progressively reducing the amplitude of the stimulus until an evoked potential could not be detected. The energy signal-to-noise ratio within an integration window at threshold varied between 1 and 8 dB.