Lacto-ovo Vegetarians Research Articles

Vegan diet and blood lipid profiles: a cross-sectional study of pre and postmenopausal women

BackgroundVegan diet has been associated with lower risk of cardiovascular diseases and mortality, partly due to its effects on serum lipid profiles. Lipid profiles [high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides (TG)] have not been fully elucidated either in pre and postmenopausal vegans or in ovo-lacto vegetarians. This study aimed to compare lipid profiles among vegans, ovo-lacto vegetarians and omnivores.MethodsDemographic data and lipid profiles were obtained from the 2002 Taiwanese Survey on Hypertension, Hyperglycemia and Hyperlipidemia. Multivariate linear regression analysis was used to examine factors significantly and independently associated with different categories of veganism and to estimate the β value of lipid profiles in the dietary types.ResultsA total of 2397 premenopausal and 1154 postmenopausal participants who did not receive lipid lowering drugs were enrolled. Premenopausal vegans had significantly lower HDL-C and higher TG, LDL-C/HDL-C, total cholesterol (TC)/HDL-C and TG/HDL-C compared with omnivores. For postmenopausal women, vegans had lower TC while ovo-lacto vegetarians were observed with low HDL-C when compared with omnivores. Multivariate linear regression analyses showed that vegan and ovo-lacto vegetarian diets decreased HDL-C levels in premenopausal women (β = -7.63, p = 0.001 and β = -4.87, p = 0.001, respectively). There were significant associations between lower LDL-C and ovo-lacto vegetarian diets (β = -7.14, p = 0.008) and also between TG and vegan diet (β = 23.37, p = 0.008), compared with omnivorous diet. Post-menopausal women reported to have consumed either a vegan or an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet were at the risk of having low HDL-C unlike those that consumed omnivorous diets (β = -4.88, p = 0.015 and β = -4.48, p = 0.047). There were no significant changes in LDL-C in both pre and postmenopausal vegans.ConclusionsVegan diet was associated with reduced HDL-C level. Because of its effects on lowering HDL-C and LDL-C, ovo-lacto vegetarian diet may be more appropriate for premenopausal women.

Effects of supplementing n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs and walnuts on cardiovascular disease risk markers in healthy free-living lacto-ovo-vegetarians: a randomized, crossover, free-living intervention study

BackgroundPlant and marine n-3 fatty acids (FA) may favorably modify select markers of cardiovascular disease risk. Whether supplementing the habitual diet of lacto-ovo-vegetarians (LOV) with walnuts (containing α-linolenic acid, ALA) and n-3 FA enriched eggs (containing primarily docosahexaenoic acid, DHA and ALA) would have equivalent effects on CVD risk factors is explored in this study.MethodsIn this study, 20 healthy free-living LOVs following their habitual diet were randomly assigned in a crossover design to receive one of three supplements: n-3 FA enriched egg (6/week), walnuts (28.4 g, 6/week) or a standard egg, 6/week (control) for 8 weeks each with 4-wk washout between treatments. Erythrocyte membrane fatty acids, serum lipids and inflammatory markers were measured at the end of each treatment.ResultsDietary compliance was observed by an expected increase in erythrocyte membrane ALA following the walnut treatment and in DHA following the n-3 FA enriched egg treatment. Walnut treatment lowered serum triacylglycerol, total cholesterol and Apo B (p < 0.05) compared to the standard egg but not the n-3 FA enriched egg treatment. However, walnut treatment significantly reduced total: HDL cholesterol ratio compared to both egg treatments. There were no differences between treatments for any of the inflammatory markers.ConclusionsFor LOV, a direct source of DHA such as n-3 FA enriched eggs seems necessary to increase membrane levels of DHA. However for producing an overall favorable blood lipid profile, daily consumption of a handful of walnuts rich in ALA may be a preferred option for lacto-ovo vegetarian.

Evidence for a possible dietary effect on the isotopic composition of Zn in blood via isotopic analysis of food products by multi-collector ICP-mass spectrometry

In this work, the hypothesis of a possible dietary effect on the isotopic composition of Zn in blood from populations with different feeding habits, i.e. lacto-ovo vegetarians and omnivores, was investigated through isotopic analysis of Zn in common food products by multi-collector ICP - mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). Several certified reference materials (CRMs) were also included in the sample set for comparison purposes. For these CRMs, the isotopic composition of Zn is expressed as δ-values, calculated with respect to both IRMM-3702 and JMC-ZnLyon, as isotopic standards. The range of δ(66)Zn values observed in food products was approximately 1.9‰. In general, vegetables, cereals and derived products showed an enrichment of the heavier Zn isotopes, whereas a depletion was observed in products of animal origin (meat, fish, egg and semi-skimmed milk), relative to human blood samples. Mussel, however, showed a significant enrichment of the heavier isotopes, which is hypothetically attributed to its accumulation behaviour. Thus, the lower δ(66)Zn values found in food products of animal origin appear to be reflected in the lower δ(66)Zn value observed in blood from an omnivorous population compared to that for a vegetarian population.

Plasma kinetics of chylomicron-like emulsion and lipid transfers to high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in lacto-ovo vegetarian and in omnivorous subjects

Previously, it was showed that vegan diet improves the metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins by increasing the plasma clearance of atherogenic remnants. The aim of the current study was to investigate this metabolism in lacto-ovo vegetarians whose diet is less strict, allowing the ingestion of eggs and milk. Transfer of lipids to HDL, an important step in HDL metabolism, was tested in vitro. Eighteen lacto-ovo vegetarians and 29 omnivorous subjects, all eutrophic and normolipidemic, were intravenously injected with triglyceride-rich emulsions labeled with ¹⁴C-cholesterol oleate and ³H-triolein. Fractional clearance rates (FCR, in min⁻¹) were calculated from samples collected during 60 min. Lipid transfer to HDL was assayed by incubating plasma samples with a donor nanoemulsion labeled with radioactive lipids. LDL cholesterol was lower in vegetarians than in omnivores (2.1 ± 0.8 and 2.7 ± 0.7 mmol/L, respectively, p < 0.05), but HDL cholesterol and triglycerides were equal. Cholesteryl ester FCR was greater in vegetarians than in omnivores (0.016 ± 0.012, 0.003 ± 0.003, p < 0.01), whereas triglyceride FCR was equal. Cholesteryl ester transfer to HDL was lower in vegetarians than in omnivores (2.7 ± 0.6, 3.5 ± 1.5 %, p < 0.05), but free cholesterol, triglyceride and phospholipid transfers and HDL size were equal. Similarly to vegans, lacto-ovo vegetarian diet increases remnant removal, as indicated by cholesteryl oleate FCR, which may favor atherosclerosis prevention, and has the ability to change lipid transfer to HDL.

The impact of the lacto-ovo vegetarian diet on the erythrocyte superoxide dismutase activity: a study in the Romanian population

Recent studies have shown that vitamin B12 scavenges superoxide anion as effectively as superoxide dismutase (SOD), and has a key role in the defense against oxidative stress. The status of vitamin B12 is suboptimal in a substantial number of vegans and even vegetarians. We therefore evaluated in lacto-ovo vegetarians (LOVs) who did not take vitamin B12 supplements the impact of the duration of this diet on the vitamin B12 status, the erythrocyte SOD activity and the serum malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration. The study group included 38 non-vegetarians and 48 LOVs divided, according to the duration of this diet, into two subgroups: LOV1 (2-10 years) and LOV2 (11-29 years). The erythrocyte SOD activity and the serum concentrations of vitamin B12 and MDA were assayed. In LOVs, the mean serum vitamin B12 concentration, the erythrocyte SOD activity and the mean serum MDA concentration were statistically significantly lower that in non-vegetarians. No significant association between the serum vitamin B12 and MDA concentrations and the duration of the LOV diet were observed. A significant inverse linear correlation between SOD activity and the duration of adherence to LOV diet was observed in LOVs. The duration of LOV diet has impact only on SOD activity. Further researches, both in vitro and in vivo, are necessary to understand the underlying molecular mechanism.

Seasonal Folate Serum Concentrations at Different Nutrition

Folic acid (vitamin B9) rich sources are leafy green vegetables, legumes, whole grains, egg yolk, liver, and citrus fruit. In winter and early spring, there could be insufficient supply of vegetables and fruit and thus lower intake of folic acid and possible deficient folic acid blood concentrations. The aim of the study was to assess serum vitamin B9 concentrations depending on the season (the last third of winter - March, the last third of spring - May/June and the beginning of autumn - September) and different nutritional habits (apparently healthy adults non-smoking, non-obese 366 subjects; 204 persons of general population on traditional mixed diet; and 162 long-term lacto-ovo vegetarians). In general population group, the mean concentration of folate in March was low (narrowly above lower reference limit) with high incidence of deficient values - 31.5%. In May/ June vs. March was folate concentration significantly higher with deficient values in 13.2% of individuals. The highest serum values were observed in September with 11.1% of deficient values. In vegetarian vs. non-vegetarian group, significantly higher folate concentrations were found in each season with no deficient values. Folate and vitamin B12 are the regulators of homocysteinemia; plant food lacks of vitamin B12. The deficient folate serum values in March caused the mild hyperhomocysteinemia in 12.3% of individuals vs. only 5.9% and 4.8% of subjects in groups investigated in May/June and September. In spite of high folate concentrations in all investigations and no deficient value, 19.6-22.8% of vegetarians suffer from mild hyperhomocysteinemia as a consequence of deficient vitamin B12 concentrations in one quarter of subjects. As far as the general population is concerned, our findings suggest that winter and early spring are critical seasons in regards to optimal serum folate concentrations.

Bomb-pulse 14C analysis combined with 13C and 15N measurements in blood serum from residents of Malmö, Sweden.

The 14C content of 60 human blood serum samples from residents of Malmö (Sweden) in 1978, obtained from a biobank, has been measured to estimate the accuracy of 14C bomb-pulse dating. The difference between the date estimated using the Calibomb software and sampling date varied between −3 ± 0.4 and +0.2 ± 0.5 years. The average age deviation of all samples was −1.5 ± 0.7 years, with the delay between production and consumption of foodstuffs being probably the dominating cause. The potential influence of food habits on the 14C date has been evaluated using stable isotope δ13C and δ15N analysis and information about the dietary habits of the investigated individuals. Although the group consisting of lacto-ovo vegetarians and vegans (pooled group) was not completely separated from the omnivores in a stable isotopic trophic level diagram, this analysis proved to add valuable information on probable dietary habits. The age deviation of the sampling date from the respective Calibomb date was found strongly correlated with the δ13C values, probably due to influence from marine diet components. For the omnivore individuals, there were indications of seasonal effects on δ13C and the age deviation. No significant correlation was found between the age deviation and the δ15N values of any dietary group. No influence of sex or year of birth was found on neither the 14C nor the δ13C and δ15N values of the serum samples. The data were also divided into two groups (omnivores and pooled group), based on the level of δ15N in the samples. The consumption of high δ15N-valued fish and birds can be responsible for this clustering.

Impact of Maternal Nutritional Status on Human Milk Quality and Infant Outcomes: An Update on Key Nutrients

The profound importance of human milk in optimizing neonatal health and improving child survival is becoming increasingly more apparent, both domestically (1–5) and internationally (6). Human milk is recommended as the sole source of nutrition for the first 6 mo of life (7–10) and is an important food source for the first 1 (7) to 2 y (11). Therefore, promoting and protecting human milk nutrient quality are of great public health concern. Until recently, it was widely believed that nutritional deficiencies in breast-fed infants were relatively rare. Routine supplementation of breast-fed infants is not recommended in the United States, with the exception of vitamin K in the newly delivered neonate (12) and—since 2005—vitamin D supplementation throughout infancy (13). However, WHO expert consultation on the optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding (10) did acknowledge that data are insufficient to exclude the possibility of micronutrient deficiencies in some infants exclusively breastfed for 6 mo. Thus, there has been a renewed effort to better understand the relationship between maternal micronutrient status and human milk quality, particularly in regions of the world where diet quality is poor (14). However, even for women in resource-rich settings, modern trends in diet and lifestyle may compromise human milk nutrient levels. For example, it was previously believed that only strict vegans were at risk of vitamin B-12 deficiency. However, recent studies have revealed that even lacto-ovo vegetarians and individuals who consume low amounts of meat (15) are at greater risk of vitamin B-12 deficiency compared with those consuming larger amounts of meat. Furthermore, current public health recommendations advise pregnant and lactating women to limit their consumption of seafood with high methylmercury levels (16) and for all individuals to minimize sun exposure, practices that may compromise the levels of (n-3) fatty acids (17) and vitamin D (18) in human milk, respectively. These contemporary issues highlight the need to better understand the impact of maternal dietary intake on human milk nutrient levels and the resultant infant functional outcomes. For some nutrients, the answers to these relationships are relatively well established; however, important knowledge gaps remain in our understanding of these relationships for select nutrients. Our expert panel was invited to address the current evidence and summarize emerging research with regard to human milk quality, focusing on the B vitamins, vitamin D, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Dr. Lindsay Allen (19) presents a global overview of B vitamin levels in human milk, how these levels are influenced by maternal diet and supplementation patterns, and the B vitamin status of infants breast-fed by mothers with inadequate B vitamin intake. Drs. Adekunle Dawodu and Reginald Tsang (20) provide an overview of the interplay between the vitamin D status of the mother, her milk, and her infant in a contemporary, cross-national context. Their paper also highlights intriguing recent research evaluating maternal vitamin D supplementation as a means to improve the vitamin D status of infants in settings with very low maternal vitamin D levels. Dr. Christina Valentine (21) presents a critical review of the literature addressing the relationship between maternal DHA intake and DHA levels in human milk, including the donor milk supply in the United States and the potential impact of human milk DHA content on functional outcomes in the preterm infant. Although each of these authors has focused on addressing suboptimal human milk levels of select nutrients, these symposium proceedings should not be interpreted as reasons to disregard current recommendations to provide human milk as the sole source of nutrition for the first 6 mo of life. On the contrary, all 4 authors acknowledge the vitally important nutritional and immunological advantages of exclusive breastfeeding. In the instances in which human milk nutrient levels have been shown to be suboptimal, each author has highlighted emerging research on interventions designed to address the problem, primarily by improving maternal intake. It would be misguided to “solve” the problem of a nutrient deficiency in human milk by recommending human milk substitutes because this ignores the importance of exclusive breastfeeding in maximizing protection from infectious disease and improving child survival. By tackling the issue of human milk quality for select nutrients, this symposium provides a road map for future research focused on protecting and promoting human milk quality. Clearly, more research is needed to determine the safety and effectiveness of approaches used to address this challenging public health issue.

Abstract P077: Differences and Similarities in Dietary Pattern and Nutrient Profiles between the Sexes and Blacks and Whites. The Adventist Health Study 2

Objective: To describe the associations between dietary patterns with nutrient intakes differentiated by sex and race. Methods: Cross-sectional study of 71751 subjects (mean age 59 years, 65% female, 76% white) from the Adventist Health Study 2. Participants completed a 204-item validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Five dietary patterns were established: non vegetarian, semi vegetarians, pesco vegetarians, lacto ovo vegetarians and strict vegetarians. ANCOVA and linear regression analysis were used to determine differences of nutrient intakes by dietary patterns. Non-dietary variables, such as age, smoking and physical activity were taken into account and associations between dietary pattern and BMI were compared. Analysis was repeated by stratifying for sex and race. Results: Strict vegetarians had the lowest BMI, with graded higher BMI levels for dietary patterns with greater fractions of animal plant protein, total fat and saturated fatty acids but similar total caloric intakes. Mean nutrient intake was more dissimilar across dietary pattern than between the sexes or blacks and whites. In general nutrient intakes were more similar between males and females than between blacks and whites with blacks revealing a strikingly higher percentage of non vegetarians than whites. Supplement intakes were often markedly higher in females than in males and higher in whites than in blacks with mean micronutrient intakes for all dietary patterns being well above the estimated average requirements for American adults in both sexes and blacks and whites. Conclusions: All groups met current American nutrient requirements. Nutrient intakes varied more markedly between dietary pattern than between sex or race. Lower BMI levels were associated with dietary patterns characterized by higher plant food intake despite generally similar caloric intake across dietary patterns warranting further investigation.

Vegetarian diets and blood pressure among white subjects: results from the Adventist Health Study-2 (AHS-2)

Previous work studying vegetarians has often found that they have lower blood pressure (BP). Reasons may include their lower BMI and higher intake levels of fruit and vegetables. Here we seek to extend this evidence in a geographically diverse population containing vegans, lacto-ovo vegetarians and omnivores. Data are analysed from a calibration sub-study of the Adventist Health Study-2 (AHS-2) cohort who attended clinics and provided validated FFQ. Criteria were established for vegan, lacto-ovo vegetarian, partial vegetarian and omnivorous dietary patterns. Clinics were conducted at churches across the USA and Canada. Dietary data were gathered by mailed questionnaire. Five hundred white subjects representing the AHS-2 cohort. Covariate-adjusted regression analyses demonstrated that the vegan vegetarians had lower systolic and diastolic BP (mmHg) than omnivorous Adventists (β = -6.8, P < 0.05 and β = -6.9, P < 0.001). Findings for lacto-ovo vegetarians (β = -9.1, P < 0.001 and β = -5.8, P < 0.001) were similar. The vegetarians (mainly the vegans) were also less likely to be using antihypertensive medications. Defining hypertension as systolic BP > 139 mmHg or diastolic BP > 89 mmHg or use of antihypertensive medications, the odds ratio of hypertension compared with omnivores was 0.37 (95 % CI 0.19, 0.74), 0.57 (95 % CI 0.36, 0.92) and 0.92 (95 % CI 0.50, 1.70), respectively, for vegans, lacto-ovo vegetarians and partial vegetarians. Effects were reduced after adjustment for BMI. We conclude from this relatively large study that vegetarians, especially vegans, with otherwise diverse characteristics but stable diets, do have lower systolic and diastolic BP and less hypertension than omnivores. This is only partly due to their lower body mass.

Vegetarians, the Good, the Bad, and the Challenges

Becoming a vegetarian has become increasingly popular over the past decade, with many people turning to vegetarianism in an attempt to achieve better health. However this trend is not without it’s controversy. Many doctors and scientists have opposing views on vegetarianism, and this has led to confusion in the public about whether it is indeed the healthier lifestyle choice. The major health advantage for vegetarians include decreased body mass index, waist to hip ratio, blood pressure, plasma total cholesterol (TC), triacylglycerol and LDL-C levels, serum lipoprotein(a) concentration, plasma factor VII activity, ratios of TC/HDL-C, LDL-C/ HDL-C and TAG/HDL-C, and serum ferritin levels. However, being a vegetarian is not without it’s disadvantages and health risks. Studies have shown that vegetarians, especially vegans tend to have lower serum levels of vitamin B12 compared with omnivores. Serum vitamin B12 concentration was significantly negatively correlated with plasma homocysteine. Remethylation of homocysteine to methionine requires vitamin B12 (methylcobalamin form) as a coenzyme for homocysteine methyltransferase (methionine synthetase) and N5-methyltetrahydrofolate as a methyl donor [1]. Vitamin B12 is essential for new cell synthesis, blood formation, maintenance of the nervous system. Vitamin B12, as a coenzyme increases the utilization of folic acid and metabolism of carbohydrate, fat and protein etc. In the vitamins, B12 is the only one containing a mineral (cobalt), it also known as the red vitamin. Seafood, animal meats, eggs and liver are good sources for vitamin B12. Vitamin B12 is not found in plant foods, however, seaweed may contain vitamin B12 analogs which can be counted on as reliable sources of active vitamin B12. Ovo-lacto vegetarians may get vitamin B12 from eggs and dairy products. Vegans could get some very limited vitamin B12 from fermented soybean products, seaweed and edible fungi (like mushrooms) on farms or in the wild which may be contaminated from bacteria in the soil.

Vitamin B-12.

Vitamin B-12.

Vegetarian diets and incidence of diabetes in the Adventist Health Study-2

AimTo evaluate the relationship of diet to incident diabetes among non-Black and Black participants in the Adventist Health Study-2. Methods and ResultsParticipants were 15,200 men and 26,187 women (17.3% Blacks) across the U.S. and Canada who were free of diabetes and who provided demographic, anthropometric, lifestyle and dietary data. Participants were grouped as vegan, lacto ovo vegetarian, pesco vegetarian, semi-vegetarian or non-vegetarian (reference group). A follow-up questionnaire after two years elicited information on the development of diabetes. Cases of diabetes developed in 0.54% of vegans, 1.08% of lacto ovo vegetarians, 1.29% of pesco vegetarians, 0.92% of semi-vegetarians and 2.12% of non-vegetarians. Blacks had an increased risk compared to non-Blacks (odds ratio [OR] 1.364; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.093–1.702). In multiple logistic regression analysis controlling for age, gender, education, income, television watching, physical activity, sleep, alcohol use, smoking and BMI, vegans (OR 0.381; 95% CI 0.236–0.617), lacto ovo vegetarians (OR 0.618; 95% CI 0.503–0.760) and semi-vegetarians (OR 0.486, 95% CI 0.312–0.755) had a lower risk of diabetes than non-vegetarians. In non-Blacks vegan, lacto ovo and semi-vegetarian diets were protective against diabetes (OR 0.429, 95% CI 0.249–0.740; OR 0.684, 95% CI 0.542–0.862; OR 0.501, 95% CI 0.303–0.827); among Blacks vegan and lacto ovo vegetarian diets were protective (OR 0.304, 95% CI 0.110–0.842; OR 0.472, 95% CI 0.270–0.825). These associations were strengthened when BMI was removed from the analyses. ConclusionVegetarian diets (vegan, lacto ovo, semi-) were associated with a substantial and independent reduction in diabetes incidence. In Blacks the dimension of the protection associated with vegetarian diets was as great as the excess risk associated with Black ethnicity.

Relation between dietary and circulating lipids in lacto-ovo vegetarians.

As factors that have a positive influence on health and specifically on serum lipids and blood pressure, the nature and composition of vegetarian diets is one of the most speculated issues in nutrition. The aim of the present study was to compare diet, lipid profile and blood pressure levels in Brazilian lacto-ovo vegetarians and non-vegetarians. A cross-sectional study was carried out involving 87 male and female adult volunteers (29 lactoovo vegetarians and 58 non-vegetarians). Two non-vegetarians were selected for each vegetarian (paired for age and gender) in order to enhance the power of the statistical tests. Mean age was 40 (13) years; 58.6% were males. No differences were found regarding nutritional status based on the BMI. This similarity may be explained by the similar energy intake and degrees of physical activity in both groups. Regarding blood pressure, the only difference between groups was systolic arterial pressure, which was higher among the non-vegetarians. Among the intake parameters analysed, only energy intake and the intake of polyunsaturated fat were similar between groups. Mean total cholesterol and LDL were higher among non-vegetarians. Mean serum TG was higher among the vegetarians. The greater consumption of carbohydrates among the vegetarians was reflected in the higher serum triglyceride levels. Although all products of animal origin have a greater amount of protein, fat and saturated fatty acids, the absence of meat from the diet may have accounted for the better lipid profile among the lacto-ovo vegetarians may also stem from the high intake of fibre and antioxidants.

Relación entre lípidos dietéticos y circulantes en ovolactovegerarianos

Introduction: As factors that have a positive influence on health and specifically on serum lipids and blood pressure, the nature and composition of vegetarian diets is one of the most speculated issues in nutrition. Aims: The aim of the present study was to compare diet, lipid profile and blood pressure levels in Brazilian lacto-ovo vegetarians and non-vegetarians. Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out involving 87 male and female adult volunteers (29 lacto-ovo vegetarians and 58 non-vegetarians). Two non-vegetarians were selected for each vegetarian (paired for age and gender) in order to enhance the power of the statistical tests. Mean age was 40 (13) years; 58.6% were males. Results: No differences were found regarding nutritional status based on the BMI. This similarity may be explained by the similar energy intake and degrees of physical activity in both groups. Regarding blood pressure, the only difference between groups was systolic arterial pressure, which was higher among the non-vegetarians. Among the intake parameters analysed, only energy intake and the intake of polyunsaturated fat were similar between groups. Mean total cholesterol and LDL were higher among non-vegetarians. Mean serum TG was higher among the vegetarians. The greater consumption of carbohydrates among the vegetarians was reflected in the higher serum triglyceride levels. Conclusions: Although all products of animal origin have a greater amount of protein, fat and saturated fatty acids, the absence of meat from the diet may have accounted for the better lipid profile among the lacto-ovo vegetarians may also stem from the high intake of fibre and antioxidants.

Diet and hypertension: a comparative analysis of four diet groups in South-Western Nigeria

Rising burden of hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa has been well documented. This study examines the relationship between diet pattern, anthropometry and hypertension in south western Nigeria. Three hundred and ninety seven adults (108 men and 289 women), aged 21 years or older formed the sample size used for this study. The respondents were grouped into four diet classes or groups based upon their dietary habits. These dietary habits include red meat eaters (RME), white meat eaters (WME), lacto-ovo-vegetarians (L-O-V) and vegans (V). A lifestyle questionnaire was administered to respondents to collect their socio-economic characteristics (age, gender, marital status, level of education and income level), their reasons for choosing particular dietary habits, their physical activity levels, and blood pressure status awareness. Anthropometric measurements (body mass index, waist circumference, hip circumference, waist- hip ratio and waist- height ratio) and actual blood pressure status (diastolic blood pressure and systolic blood pressure) status were also obtained from each respondent. Diagnosis of hypertension was based on blood pressure of >160/95mmHg. Results showed that the average body mass index (BMI) was highest among the red meat eaters (mean= 25kg/m2) and lowest among the vegans (mean = 21.19kg/m2). There was significant correlation between BMI and blood pressure (BP) levels (diastolic and systolic) in both male and female RME (p some of the participants were found to be hypertensive: 13% of males and 9% of females. Based on the reasons given for the choice of dietary habit, economic reasons ranked highest for choice of dietary habit especially among RME (60%). But health and religious reasons were also important factors for dietary pattern among L-O-V and V. Promotion of nutrition education and relevant public health action which focuses on the environmental and nutritional changes was recommended.

Effect of n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs and organic eggs on serum lutein in free-living lacto-ovo vegetarians

Lutein is a xanthophyll found in the chloroplasts of dark green leafy vegetables, chromoplasts of fruits, and egg yolk. Dietary, serum and macular lutein are inversely related to the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Although the lutein from egg is known to be more bioavailable than that from spinach, not much is known about lutein bioavailability from n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs and organic eggs, both of which are increasingly available to consumers. We determined the effects of feeding n-3 fatty acid-enriched eggs and organic eggs on serum lutein, zeaxanthin and β-carotene in 20 healthy lacto-ovo-vegetarian (LOV) adults using a single-blind, randomized, crossover study design with a 4-week washout between treatments: six organic eggs or six n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs per week or no egg control for 8 weeks each. Serum lutein was significantly higher in both egg treatments (P<0.009) compared with the control, but was not different between the two egg treatments. Serum β-carotene was also higher in the egg groups compared with control but only approached significance (P=0.066). Serum zeaxanthin increased in both egg treatments compared with control but did not reach statistical significance (P=0.139). n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs and organic eggs may both significantly increase serum lutein in healthy LOV consuming a predominately plant-based diet.

Considering the Case for Vitamin B12 Fortification of Flour

Reasons to fortify flour with vitamin B12 are considered, including the high prevalence of depletion and deficiency of this vitamin that occurs in persons of all ages in resource-poor countries and in the elderly in wealthier countries, and the adverse functional consequences of poor vitamin B12 status. From a global perspective, the main cause of inadequate intake and status is a low intake of animal-source foods; even lacto-ovo vegetarians have lower serum vitamin B12 concentrations than omnivores, and for various reasons many populations have limited consumption of animal-source foods. Infants are vitamin B12-depleted from early infancy if their mothers' vitamin B12 status and intake are poor during pregnancy and lactation. Even in the United States, more than 20% of the elderly have serum vitamin B12 concentrations that indicate depletion, and an additional 6% have deficiency, primarily due to gastric atrophy, which impairs the absorption of the vitamin from food but usually not from supplements or fortified foods. Although the evidence is limited, it shows that fortified flour, consumed as bread, can improve vitamin B12 status. Where vitamin B12 fortification is implemented, the recommendation is to add 20 microg/kg flour, assuming consumption of 75 to 100 g flour per day, to provide 75% to 100% of the Estimated Average Requirement; the amount of the vitamin that can be added is limited by its cost. The effectiveness of this level of addition for improving vitamin B12 status in programs needs to be determined and monitored. In addition, further research should evaluate the bioavailability of the vitamin from fortified flour by elderly people with food cobalamin malabsorption and gastric atrophy.

Vitamin B-12 Status Is Not Associated with Plasma Homocysteine in Parents and Their Preschool Children: Lacto-Ovo, Lacto, and Ovo Vegetarians and Omnivores

Objective: Vegetarians may be at risk of certain nutrient deficiencies, particularly vitamin B-12. Vitamin B-12 deficiency may increase plasma homocysteine concentration and thus may potentially increase the risk of cardiovascular disease in vegetarians. The purpose of this study was to assess and compare plasma homocysteine and vitamin B-12 status in vegetarian and omnivorous preschool children and their parents. In addition, the association between parents' and children's homocysteine and vitamin B-12 concentration was also examined.Methods: Fifty-six omnivores (28 preschool children and one of their parents), 34 lacto-ovo vegetarians (16 parents and 18 children), 5 ovo vegetarians (2 parents and 3 children), 1 lacto vegetarian parent, and 2 vegan parents were enrolled in this study. The mean age of preschool children was 5.1 ± 1.3 years and that of their parent was 35.4 ± 4.2 years. Nutrient intakes were recorded using 3-day dietary records. Fasting venous blood samples were obtained to measure serum creatinine, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, hematological parameters, plasma homocysteine, serum folate, and vitamin B-12 concentrations.Results: There was no significant difference in dietary folate intake between vegetarian and omnivores within parent and child groups. The mean plasma homocysteine level of vegetarian parents and their children was in the physiological range, and they had slightly but not significantly higher plasma homocysteine levels than omnivores. Omnivorous parents and their children had significantly higher vitamin B-12 intake than vegetarian participants but similar serum vitamin B-12 concentrations. Plasma homocysteine concentration was significantly and negatively associated with only serum folate levels (β = −0.15) and dietary vitamin B-12 intake (β = −0.05) in the omnivorous parents after adjusting for age, gender, body mass index, and serum creatinine.Conclusion: Vegetarian parents and their preschool children had a lower vitamin B-12 intake than omnivorous parents and their preschool children but similar plasma vitamin B-12 and homocysteine concentrations. Plasma homocysteine was not associated with serum vitamin B-12 levels in the parent, child, or pooled group.

Type of Vegetarian Diet, Body Weight, and Prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes

OBJECTIVEWe assessed the prevalence of type 2 diabetes in people following different types of vegetarian diets compared with that in nonvegetarians.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODSThe study population comprised 22,434 men and 38,469 women who participated in the Adventist Health Study-2 conducted in 2002–2006. We collected self-reported demographic, anthropometric, medical history, and lifestyle data from Seventh-Day Adventist church members across North America. The type of vegetarian diet was categorized based on a food-frequency questionnaire. We calculated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% CIs using multivariate-adjusted logistic regression.RESULTSMean BMI was lowest in vegans (23.6 kg/m2) and incrementally higher in lacto-ovo vegetarians (25.7 kg/m2), pesco-vegetarians (26.3 kg/m2), semi-vegetarians (27.3 kg/m2), and nonvegetarians (28.8 kg/m2). Prevalence of type 2 diabetes increased from 2.9% in vegans to 7.6% in nonvegetarians; the prevalence was intermediate in participants consuming lacto-ovo (3.2%), pesco (4.8%), or semi-vegetarian (6.1%) diets. After adjustment for age, sex, ethnicity, education, income, physical activity, television watching, sleep habits, alcohol use, and BMI, vegans (OR 0.51 [95% CI 0.40–0.66]), lacto-ovo vegetarians (0.54 [0.49–0.60]), pesco-vegetarians (0.70 [0.61–0.80]), and semi-vegetarians (0.76 [0.65–0.90]) had a lower risk of type 2 diabetes than nonvegetarians.CONCLUSIONSThe 5-unit BMI difference between vegans and nonvegetarians indicates a substantial potential of vegetarianism to protect against obesity. Increased conformity to vegetarian diets protected against risk of type 2 diabetes after lifestyle characteristics and BMI were taken into account. Pesco- and semi-vegetarian diets afforded intermediate protection.