Lack Of Expansion Research Articles

CD5 deletion enhances the antitumor activity of adoptive T cell therapies.

Most patients treated with US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells eventually experience disease progression. Furthermore, CAR T cells have not been curative against solid cancers and several hematological malignancies such as T cell lymphomas, which have very poor prognoses. One of the main barriers to the clinical success of adoptive T cell immunotherapies is CAR T cell dysfunction and lack of expansion and/or persistence after infusion. In this study, we found that CD5 inhibits CAR T cell activation and that knockout (KO) of CD5 using CRISPR-Cas9 enhances the antitumor effect of CAR T cells in multiple hematological and solid cancer models. Mechanistically, CD5 KO drives increased T cell effector function with enhanced cytotoxicity, in vivo expansion, and persistence, without apparent toxicity in preclinical models. These findings indicate that CD5 is a critical inhibitor of T cell function and a potential clinical target for enhancing T cell therapies.

Secondary infections rejuvenate the intestinal CD103+ tissue-resident memory T cell pool.

Resident T lymphocytes (TRM) protect tissues during pathogen reexposure. Although TRM phenotype and restricted migratory pattern are established, we have a limited understanding of their response kinetics, stability, and turnover during reinfections. Such characterizations have been restricted by the absence of in vivo fate-mapping systems. We generated two mouse models, one to stably mark CD103+ T cells (a marker of TRM cells) and the other to specifically deplete CD103- T cells. Using these models, we observed that intestinal CD103+ T cells became activated during viral or bacterial reinfection, remained organ-confined, and retained their original phenotype but failed to reexpand. Instead, the population was largely rejuvenated by CD103+ T cells formed de novo during reinfections. This pattern remained unchanged upon deletion of antigen-specific circulating T cells, indicating that the lack of expansion was not due to competition with circulating subsets. Thus, although intestinal CD103+ resident T cells survived long term without antigen, they lacked the ability of classical memory T cells to reexpand. This indicated that CD103+ T cell populations could not autonomously maintain themselves. Instead, their numbers were sustained during reinfection via de novo formation from CD103- precursors. Moreover, in contrast to CD103- cells, which require antigen plus inflammation for their activation, CD103+ TRM became fully activated follwing exposure to inflammation alone. Together, our data indicate that primary CD103+ resident memory T cells lack secondary expansion potential and require CD103- precursors for their long-term maintenance.

Accelerating clinical-scale production of BCMA CAR T cells with defined maturation stages

The advent of CAR T cells targeting CD19 or BCMA on B cell neoplasm demonstrated remarkable efficacy, but rapid relapses and primary refractoriness remains challenging. A leading cause of CAR T cell failure is their lack of expansion and limited persistence. Long-lived, self-renewing multipotent T memory stem cells (TSCM) and T central memory cells (TCM) likely sustain superior tumor regression, but their low frequencies in blood from cancer patients impose a major hurdle for clinical CAR T production. We designed a clinically compliant protocol for generating BCMA CAR T cells starting with increased TSCM/TCM cell input. A CliniMACS Prodigy process was combined with flow cytometry-based enrichment of CD62L+CD95+ T cells. Although starting with only 15% of standard T cell input, the selected TSCM/TCM material was efficiently activated and transduced with a BCMA CAR-encoding retrovirus. Cultivation in the presence of IL-7/IL-15 enabled the harvest of CAR T cells containing an increased CD4+ TSCM fraction and 70% TSCM cells amongst CD8+. Strong cell proliferation yielded cell numbers sufficient for clinical application, while effector functions were maintained. Together, adaptation of a standard CliniMACS Prodigy protocol to low input numbers resulted in efficient retroviral transduction with a high CAR T cell yield.

Niche Regulation of Residual Hematopoietic Stem Cell Protein Synthesis By Extracellular Vesicle (EV) Trafficking in the Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) Microenvironment

Work by several groups has shown that the presence of Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) deregulates critical functions of the bone marrow microenvironment, including hematopoiesis, in part through indirect stroma-secreted factors. We recently reported that Extracellular Vesicles (EV) released from AML blasts directly suppress the clonogenicity of hematopoietic progenitors via the action of miRNA-150 and miR-155 on cMyb, a transcription factor highly expressed in differentiating progenitors. The fate of long-term hematopoietic stem cells (LT- HSC) in the AML niche has not been widely studied. Using a xenograft model of human AML (Molm-14, U937 and HL-60 cell lines), we first ascertained the in vivo uptake of AML-EVs and found different internalization efficiencies among hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) populations, including LT-HSC (CD150+CD48−KSL) by imaging and flow cytometry. Live-cell microscopy studies of LT-HSCs revealed AML-EV binding and uptake within minutes following in vitro exposure. To determine the functional implications of EV trafficking, we next evaluated the relative frequency of the hematopoietic populations in low chimerism xenografts and found a consistent increase in the LT-HSC population, but not multi-potent progenitors, suggestingthe proportional accumulation of LT-HSC population caused by mobilization and lack of expansion and differentiation of other hematopoietic cells. To gain insight into how AML-EVs may regulate cell fate and function following internalization, we performed a proteomic profiling of HSPC cells exposed to EVs from two cell lines representing different AML subtypes. Bioinformatics analysis found significant enrichment for the ribosomal biogenesis pathways and negative cell cycle regulators in the EV-exposed cells. Because LT-HSC have been shown to be particularly susceptible to impairment of ribosome biogenesis, we wished to determine if AML-EVs modulate the LT-HSC fate by suppressing protein synthesis. We therefore injected AML-EVs into the femurs of both immuno-competent and immuno-compromised mice and evaluated the cellular protein synthesis by quantifying O-Propargyl-Puromycin (OPP) incorporation. Results show that AML-EVs significantly suppress the protein synthesis in the LT-HSC, but not in the HSPC pool population. The mTOR signaling pathway is known to be greatly involved in ribosome biogenesis via phosphorylation of the ribosomal protein S6 (S6RP) which in turn regulates several repressors of rRNA and ribosomal proteins. Consistent with the notion of translational suppression, we found that AML-EVs reduced the phosphorylation of S6RP in LT-HSC. In correlation with the observation that ribosomal stress induction via suppression of ribosomal proteins we found upregulation of P53 and its transcriptional target p21, as well as a gain in quiescence (G0) in the LT-HSC population. To address the functional fate of deregulated protein synthesis and quiescence, we transplanted KSL cells purified from male mice engrafted with AML cells into irradiated female recipient mice and measured the donor chimerism via qPCR for Sex-determining Region Y (SRY). Early repopulation capacities between cohorts of mice transplanted with KSL from AML xenograft versus those from control non-engrafted mice are similar (with long-term evaluation ongoing) in the host non-leukemic microenvironment. This suggesting that hematopoietic impairment by AML-EVs is reversible upon transplantation to a different host environment. Collectively, our results provide the first evidence that AML-EV impair LT-HSC via suppressing of ribosomal biogenesis. Understanding the regulation of LT-HSC by AML-EV will help reduce the morbidity and mortality from hematopoietic suppression in patients with leukemia. DisclosuresNo relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Immune inactivation of anti-simian immunodeficiency virus chimeric antigen receptor T cells in rhesus macaques

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapies are being investigated as potential HIV cures and designed to target HIV reservoirs. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) envelope allowed us to investigate the potency of single-chain variable fragment (scFv)-based anti-SIV CAR T cells. In vitro, CAR T cells expressing the scFv to both the variable loop 1 (V1) or V3 of the SIV envelope were highly potent at eliminating SIV-infected T cells. However, in preclinical studies, in vivo infusion of these CAR T cells in rhesus macaques (RMs) resulted in lack of expansion and no detectable in vivo antiviral activity. Injection of envelope-expressing antigen-presenting cells (APCs) 1 week post-CAR T cell infusion also failed to stimulate CAR T cell expansion in vivo. To investigate this in vitro versus in vivo discrepancy, we examined host immune responses directed at CAR T cells. A humoral immune response against the CAR scFv was detected post-infusion of the anti-SIV CAR T cells; anti-SIV IgG antibodies present in plasma of SIV-infected animals were associated with inhibited CAR T cell effector functions. These data indicate that lack of in vivo expansion and efficacy of CAR T cells might be due to antibodies blocking the interaction between the CAR scFv and its epitope.

Региональные факторы роста урожайности зерновых культур в динамике последних лет

In view of the significant increase in grain production in Russia, a methodological approach is proposed to analyze the significance of regional factors of grain crop yield growth in the country in recent years, especially against the background of the lack of expansion of acreage under grain crops. Based on the results of the calculations, the effectiveness of the influence of climatic, financial, infrastructural and production factors on the growth of grain yield was described. It is concluded that various factors had different effects on the growth of grain crop yields in regions with high-, medium - and low-intensity grain production complex. The role of reducing the influence of financial factors on the growth of grain yields and a sharp increase in the role of agro-climatic conditions is noted. The revealed trend of increasing depreciation of fixed assets of agriculture as a whole is particularly emphasized, with a slight increase in the volume of their renewal and modernization in the leading regions in terms of grain crop yield growth. Without taking appropriate measures to reduce the depreciation of fixed assets in the near future, this will result in a sharp decline in the achieved volumes of grain production in the country.

Where Have All the Pancreas Transplants Gone and What Needs to Change?

To shed light on the multiple factors impacting a decline in pancreas transplant volume and to present strategies that individual transplant centers can implement to increase their volumes. Overall, pancreas transplant volume is declining in the USA and in several other countries of the world. The reasons are multifactorial, but an important driving factor is the delayed progression to end-stage renal disease in patients with type 1 diabetes due to better diabetes care. Another factor contributing to the lack of expansion of the pancreas transplant field is an under appreciation by the endocrinology and medical communities that pancreas transplantation offers excellent results that are now substantially improved over historic outcomes. Compounding these trends, there appears to be a continual negative cycle of low volume at many training centers leading to inadequate training, which then results in a lack of confidence and expertise in practicing surgical faculty and inpatient transplant units. Of all types of solid organ transplants, pancreas transplantation is unique in that as outcomes have improved over the last several decades, the number of pancreas transplants performed is declining. We discuss the reasons underlying the declining numbers and will highlight specific strategies that can be implemented at centers to increase individual pancreas transplant center volumes.

Classifying the Imaginary: An Expansion of Library of Congress’ Subclass G9930 for Local Use

Class G provides granular classification for most cartographic materials through a well-established and expanded Cuttering system, maps of imaginary places are classified under G9930 which has no formal expansion. With the creation of a collection of imaginary maps at the Texas A&M University Libraries, the lack of expansion under G9930 created access and filing complications. This case study describes the problem that growing a collection under the unexpanded classification system posed and the solution that was found through the creation of an in-house expansion for G9930.

Engineering for Success: Approaches to Improve Chimeric Antigen Receptor TCell Therapy for Solid Tumors.

While impressive clinical responses have been observed using chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells targeting CD19+ hematologic malignancies, limited clinical benefit has been observed using CAR T cells for a variety of solid tumors. Results of clinical studies have highlighted several obstacles which CAR T cells face in the context of solid tumors, including insufficient homing to tumor sites, lack of expansion and persistence, encountering a highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and heterogeneous antigen expression. In this review, we review clinical outcomes and discuss strategies to improve the antitumor activity of CAR T cells for solid tumors.

Severe type 1 upgrading leprosy reaction in a renal transplant recipient: a paradoxical manifestation associated with deficiency of antigen-specific regulatory T-cells?

BackgroundDue to its chronic subclinical course and large spectrum of manifestations, leprosy often represents a diagnostic challenge. Even with proper anti-mycobacteria treatment, leprosy follow up remains challenging: almost half of leprosy patients may develop reaction episodes. Leprosy is an infrequent complication of solid organ transplant recipients. This case report illustrates the challenges in diagnosing and managing leprosy and its reactional states in a transplant recipient.Case presentationA 53-year-old man presented 34 months after a successful renal transplantation a borderline-tuberculoid leprosy with signs of mild type 1 upgrading reaction (T1R). Cutaneous manifestations were atypical, and diagnosis was only made when granulomatous neuritis was found in a cutaneous biopsy. He was successfully treated with the WHO recommended multidrug therapy (MDT: rifampicin, dapsone and clofazimine). However he developed a severe T1R immediately after completion of the MDT but no signs of allograft rejection. T1R results from flare-ups of the host T-helper-1 cell-mediated immune response against Mycobacterium leprae antigens in patients with immunologically unstable, borderline forms of leprosy and has been considered an inflammatory syndrome in many aspects similar to the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndromes (IRS). The T1R was successfully treated by increasing the prednisone dose without modifying the other immunosuppressive drugs used for preventing allograft rejection. Immunological study revealed that the patient had a profound depletion of both in situ and circulating regulatory T-cells and lack of expansion of the Tregs upon M. leprae stimulation compared to T1R leprosy patients without iatrogenic immunosuppression.ConclusionsOur case report highlights that leprosy, especially in the transplant setting, requires a high degree of clinical suspicion and the contribution of histopathology. It also suggests that the development of upgrading inflammatory syndromes such as T1R can occur despite the sustained immunosuppressors regimen for preventing graft rejection. Our hypothesis is that the well-known deleterious effects of these immunosuppressors on pathogen-induced regulatory T-cells contributed to the immunedysregulation and development T1R.

The Althoff-Radtke Test Adapted for High Chromium Cast Iron

Abstract The paper presents results of the possibility of adapting the Althoff-Radtke test for High Chromium Cast Iron. The Althoff-Radtke test is a clump attempt used for steel. The Althoff-Radtke test has four different lengths of clamp which qualifies it as a test to quantitatively take into account different kinds of shrinkage ΔL. The length of the slot of the cracked corner and the length of each staple (50 - 350 mm) are the parameters tendency to cast cracks. Castings of white cast iron have a high tendency to hot cracking due to the large range of solidification temperatures, unfavorable kinetics parameters of shrinkage, and especially a lack of expansion before shrinkage. Shrinkage of high chromium white cast iron is similar to the shrinkage of cast steel, and is approximately 2%. Therefore it is important to test susceptibility to hot cracks. Research was carried out under industrial conditions. Four melts were performed, one of the initial chemical composition and the other three modified by different amounts of Fe-Ti, respectively, 0.25%, 0.5% and 0.75% Fe-Ti. The propensity for hot cracking was based on the observation of the dark surface in the corner of the sample. The study shows that the Althoff-Radtke test can be adapted to determine the tendency for hot cracking of high chromium cast iron. It should however be noted that the test results cannot be compared with those for other alloys.

The Effect of Brusite Interlayer Deposition on Transformations of Expanding Clay Minerals Toward Chlorite Minerals in Al Sabkha Soils in AL- Diwaniyah and Hilla in Iraq

This study is conducted to investigate the effect of brusite Interlayer deposition on transformations in clay minerals (2:1) toward mineral chlorite, through the choice of three pedons, two of them of sabakh soils(pedons1,2) and another of suitable agricultural(pedons3), in the regions of Diwaniyah and Hilla. X-rays show the occurrence of Chloritization in clay soils except Pedone soil of comparison by the presence of basal distance, which refers to the presence of Montmorilonite, or Vermiculate minerals in magnesium saturated and aerobically dried samples. Lack of expansion in magnesium saturated samples that are treated by Balothleen Klykol; its continuation in saturated potassium samples that are heated to the point of 350 °C, and its collapsing in the heated treatment to a temperature of 550 m° or its non-collapsing confirm the existence of bloated chlorite metal that emergs from the deposition of Brusite layer between the inner layers of Montmorilonite and Vermiculate.They also confirm Chloritization in the salty soils. Interpretation of the composition of Brusite layer and its higher stability on the continuation of the basal distance in aerobically dry samples to heated to 350 °, and it did not fully collapse in the heated treatments to 550 °. This happens in the clays of some of surface horizons of Sabakh soils. Spectrum infrared absorption (IR) shows the presence of frequencies of the association of magnesium hydroxide (Mg-OH) in saline soils refers to Brusite layer deposition between inner layers of clay minerals, which has been shown by X-ray curves. Spectral beam infrared shows the presence of magnesium hydroxide association in the comparison of pedon soil, and justifies that there are true chlorite clays in the soil

Persistence, isolation and diversification of a naturally fragmented species in local refugia: the case of Hydromantes strinatii.

The study of the European plethodontid salamander Hydromantes strinatii using allozyme and mitochondrial markers showed a strong geographical genetic structure. This was likely the outcome of different evolutionary mechanisms leaving their signature despite the effects of the genetic drift due to the low population size typical of this species. Two highly divergent clades were identified in the eastern and central-western part of the range, with further geographic sub-structure. Nuclear and mitochondrial markers substantially recovered the same population groups but were conflicting in reconstructing their relationships. This apparent incongruence highlighted the action of different mechanisms such as secondary contacts and incomplete lineage sorting in originating the observed genetic variation. The troglophilic habit of this species provided the opportunity to show the importance of caves as local refugia in maintaining the genetic diversity through the persistence of local populations. Accordingly, high nucleotide and haplotype diversity, strong geographic genetic structuring and lack of expansion were evidenced. This signature was found in the populations from the Ligurian and Maritime Alps, in agreement with the complex orography and paleoclimatic history of this Mediterranean hotspot.

Fyn Expression Predicates Both Protective Immunity and Onset of Autoimmunity

Genomic disruption of Fyn has not been associated with an immune-deficient phenotype, notwithstanding the profound impairment in IL-2 production by T cells derived from Fyn-deficient animals observed in vitro. The results presented demonstrate that Fyn deficient animals succumb to influenza infection ahead of the protective expansion of lung infiltrating T cells and viral clearance observed in wild-type hosts. Formal proof that Fyn-dependent IL-2 production mediates T cell expansion in vivo is provided using a model of T cell induced enteropathy. Specifically, Fyn deficient naive T cells do not induce colitis in SCID animals due to their lack of expansion, and Fyn re-expression rescues both IL-2 production and its capacity to support in vivo expansion leading to colitis. These results reconcile the obligatory role of Fyn in T cell activation and autocrine IL-2 supported growth; and underscore the mechanism through which its function is integrated with and regulated by Lck.

Parent of Origin, Mosaicism, and Recurrence Risk: Probabilistic Modeling Explains the Broken Symmetry of Transmission Genetics

Most new mutations are observed to arise in fathers, and increasing paternal age positively correlates with the risk of new variants. Interestingly, new mutations in X-linked recessive disease show elevated familial recurrence rates. In male offspring, these mutations must be inherited from mothers. We previously developed a simulation model to consider parental mosaicism as a source of transmitted mutations. In this paper, we extend and formalize the model to provide analytical results and flexible formulas. The results implicate parent of origin and parental mosaicism as central variables in recurrence risk. Consistent with empirical data, our model predicts that more transmitted mutations arise in fathers and that this tendency increases as fathers age. Notably, the lack of expansion later in the male germline determines relatively lower variance in the proportion of mutants, which decreases with paternal age. Subsequently, observation of a transmitted mutation has less impact on the expected risk for future offspring. Conversely, for the female germline, which arrests after clonal expansion in early development, variance in the mutant proportion is higher, and observation of a transmitted mutation dramatically increases the expected risk of recurrence in another pregnancy. Parental somatic mosaicism considerably elevates risk for both parents. These findings have important implications for genetic counseling and for understanding patterns of recurrence in transmission genetics. We provide a convenient online tool and source code implementing our analytical results. These tools permit varying the underlying parameters that influence recurrence risk and could be useful for analyzing risk in diverse family structures.

生态城市建设评价指标体系构建的新方法：组合式动态评价法

A scientific and reasonable appraisal index system not only reflects the eco-city system's status,but also could monitor its development process and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the ecological construction process among various cities. Therefore,how to establish a rigorous appraisal index system scientifically has been the focus of many scholars during the study of eco-city. However,nearly all the researches are just paying attention to developing some national unified and static appraisal criteria during the construct process of eco-city appraisal index system,without considering regional,dynamic and complicated state. Consequently,it leads to a lot of problems,such as the deficiency of flexibility,insufficient basis for standard-setting,lack of expansibility and contacting between the indicators. Against to these problems,this paper has divided the constructing eco-cities into series types in China from three aspects: regional ecological background,urban evolutionary phase,and urban synthesis condition,with the methods of expert-consulting,analytic hierarchy process,correlation analysis,information entropy,clustering analysis and urban synthesis condition.Meanwhile,this paper presents a new method,the combined dynamic appraisal method,for building the eco-city appraisal index system. Based on the similarity within the same type,this method could construct the combined dynamic appraisalindex system more flexibility and more fit to the actual situation of each city. In this index system,the cities within the same dimension and type has been taken as the sample set,and the maximum value,average value and minimum value has been taken as the important references for the determining of each indicators' standard value. Finally,this paper carries on the case analysis for discussing the strengths and weaknesses of this method with the examples of Yibin,Suzhou and Baotou.The research results show that,compared with the present appraisal method,this new method has many advantages.( 1) Rationality. The determining of each indicators' standard value are based on the consideration of the value range of the cities within the same dimension and type,so it is more reasonable than just use the actual values of some international metropolis around the globe.( 2) Dynamic. After the establishment of eco-city classification database,the standard value of each indicator could be easily refined based on the update of each city's actual value in the sample set. In this way,the real-time and dynamic of this appraisal index system could be enhanced.( 3) Flexibility. With this method,we could establish the appraisal index system of various cities more flexible according to the combination of different dimensions and city types.( 4) Expansibility. With this method,we could add some new indicators more easily according to the specific characteristics of different cities.( 5) Integrity. This method has taken the connection and integrity between indicators into more consideration during the choose process of each indicator. Nevertheless,it also has some disadvantages,such as high demand of data quality, being improved precision, and management difficulties. As the accumulation of eco-city construction data materials and the improvement of management system in China,the new method will provide a better way for the construction of eco-city appraisal index system.

Education for All in the Caribbean: Promise, Paradox and Possibility

The vision of Jomtien was simple and powerful: every person – child, youth and adult – shall be able to benefit from educational opportunities designed to meet their basic learning needs. In other words: Education for All (EFA). Although Universal Primary Education (UPE) had long been part of the rhetoric of Caribbean governments, the World Conference on Education for All held in Thailand in 1990, attended by almost every country of the world, every development agency, and a large collection of national and international non-governmental agencies, made it both universal and official: education, not only in primary school, but for young children, youth and adults as well. Education was therefore to be regarded as a fundamental right of humankind. As with so many other things, this is proving to be more easily said than done. Between 1990 and 2000, many EFA committees were formed and EFA action plans and programmes drafted, but these were often neither credible nor comprehensive and were mostly inspired by donors rather than by education ministries and other ministries tasked with their implementation (UNESCO, 2011). Despite increased funding from some donors and increased government spending on education in the Caribbean, the goal of achieving EFA still continues to be elusive in several ways for several countries. The World Education Forum in Dakar in 2000 reported on the results of the previous decade, which, arguably, were fairly disappointing. As a result, several goals were tweaked, placing greater emphasis on gender, quality, equity, and the ‘learning’ and ‘skills’ needed for emerging knowledge societies. The rhetoric was now tempered and the discourse shifted to sustainable development in a globalising world and to the personalised knowledge and skills needed to live in such a world and away from basic education. As one might expect, EFA reports paint a mixed picture of progress and decline; success and failure for the Caribbean region in meeting the EFA goals. Back in 2000, Errol Miller, in his report Education for All in the Caribbean in the 1990s: retrospect and prospect (2000) suggested more time was needed to achieve the EFA goals in the Caribbean. Miller also noted that, although the spirit and intent to achieve the goals might have been present, the will and resources were not. More than two decades later, there is increasing complexity in attaining the goals of EFA and what the initiators of these goals might have imagined. Indeed the discourse around the goals in the Caribbean is only now becoming a popular language, although not a language used and understood by all. In the period from 1990 to 2000, between the Jomtien and Dakar conferences, major challenges included: the lack of expansion and improvement of early childhood care and education; high repetition and drop-out rates in primary education; difficulties in expanding educational opportunities for young people; a lack of opportunities for young adults; a lack of equity in the provision of education which has resulted in certain social groups being left at the margin of the

Prospects of Value-Added Poultry Products Marketing in India

Poultry industry in India is making major forward changes in productivity enhancement, industry expansion, research and development changes and marketing network. As to the extent of farming sector growth, concurrent expansion of the processing and further processing is limited. Lack of expansion in processing due to low demand for processed foods leads to restriction in the production of quality products. Poultry industry having 8% and 12% growth rate in broiler and layer industry needs to plan for quality production of poultry meat products and by-products and also in egg products and egg by-products. Further sustainability and profitability of the industry depends upon the diversification. Need based technology for meat products like emulsion, sausage, restructured, cured, enrobed, retort-packed, heritage products and value- addition to edible by-products are well established. Likewise postharvest technology for pickled egg, salted chicken egg, albumin rings, egg roll, egg crepe and egg powder are also available. Added to the well planned growth of the industry, defined and refined technologies are available as a major strength for numerous value-added meat products, egg products and by-products. Further limited diversification of poultry products industry is attributed to lack of adequate infrastructure facilities for processing and storage. Expansion of marketing is possible with major policy support, creation of facilities and reaching the consumers with quality and safety products. Disturbances in poultry marketing network are mainly reasoned out for monopoly of traders and restricted profit to the consumers. Overall poultry products marketing mainly depends on organized marketing network, creation of processing infrastructure facilities, quality and safety compliance in food chain from production to consumption.

Helicosporidia: a genomic snapshot of an early transition to parasitism

Helicosporidia are gut parasites of invertebrates. These achlorophyllous, non-photosynthetic green algae are the first reported to infect insects. Helicosporidia are members of the green algal class Trebouxiophyceae and are further related to the photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic genera <em>Auxenochlorella</em> and <em>Prototheca</em>, respectively, the latter of which can also turn to parasitism under opportunistic conditions. Molecular analyses suggest that Helicosporidia diverged from other photosynthetic trebouxiophytes less than 200 million years ago and that its adaptation to parasitism is therefore recent. In this minireview, we summarize the current knowledge of helicosporidian genomics. Unlike many well-known parasitic lineages, the <em>Helicosporidium</em> sp. organelle and nuclear genomes have lost surprisingly little in terms of coding content aside from photosynthesis-related genes. While the small size of its nuclear genome compared to other sequenced trebouxiophycean representatives suggests that <em>Helicosporidium</em> is going through a streamlining process, this scenario cannot be ascertained at this stage. Genome expansions and contractions have occurred independently multiple times in the green algae, and the small size of the <em>Helicosporidium</em> genome may reflect a lack of expansion from a lean ancestor state rather than a tendency towards reduction.

Complexities of water access in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Water access is generally measured by the distance to a source of water. This concept of access overlooks important issues such as the reliability, quality, quantity, and cost of water. Using survey data from residents in four of Dar es Salaam's wards, this paper explores the complexity of real water access. Many households have water access on paper, but in reality are forced to obtain water from a variety of sources, including some that are contaminated with salt or sewerage, and spend a significant portion of their incomes on this water. The inadequacies in water provision can be attributed in part to the colonial era, but a lack of expansion or improvement to water infrastructure since independence is also to blame. Community-based organizations have emerged as one way to improve water access.