Labor Market Outcomes For Women Research Articles

Reducing Vulnerable Employment: Is there a Role for Reproductive Health, Social Protection, and Labor Market Policy?

Reproductive health and employment are inextricably linked for women. Across the globe, women are the primary caretakers of children, and a woman’s reproductive years tend to overlap with her economically productive years. Planned and unplanned pregnancy and childbearing affect women’s ability to pursue different types of economic opportunities and even the choice of sectors in which they seek to work. This study explores the timing and sequencing of policy to address reproductive health needs and to strengthen labor market institutions and social protection, illustrated by case studies from six developing countries – Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, South Africa, the Philippines, and Vietnam – which have similar demographic transitions but divergent labor market outcomes for women. The findings suggest that where fertility transitions have been sharpest, this has not automatically translated into more employment and better labor market outcomes for women – illuminating a critical role for policy to support women’s transition into formal employment.

The relationship between marital status and employment in South Africa

Orientation: Marriage formalises gender roles in society and as such has a significant impact on the labour force. The institution does, however, change over time, which makes it important to continually assess the impact that it has.Research purpose: In this article, the impact of marital status on employment is gauged.Motivation for the study: Marriage is arguably one of the most engrained institutions in modern society. Understanding the link between the marriage institution and employment could be essential in understanding the social and economic externalities that policy could have.Research design, approach and method: Logistic regressions are used to analyse what the relationship between different marital statuses and employment is.Main findings: The findings show that women are least likely to be employed when they are married, whereas men are most likely to be employed when they are married.Practical/managerial implications: Marriage clearly influences the labour market outcomes of women differently than those of men. This is an important certitude, especially for policy-makers who have to consider how their policies will differently affect men and women, and thereby how those policies will either work against or for gender equality.Contribution/value-add: This article attempts to uncover the link between marital status and employment in South Africa and thereby realise the potential implications of changes in marriage patterns on employment patterns.

The Wage Penalty for Parental Caregiving: Has It Declined Over Time?

AbstractObjectiveThis study analyzed differences in the wage penalty for parental caregiving between early Baby Boomers and the previous generation.BackgroundResearch has explored the association between parental caregiving and women's labor market outcomes, but few studies have conducted cross‐cohort analyses.MethodThis study used nationally representative data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and compared two cohorts of individuals aged 50 to 64. One cohort was born between 1931 and 1941, and the other was born between 1948 and 1953. The 1994 to 2012 waves of the HRS were pooled, and multivariate fixed effects regression models were used to estimate the associations among birth cohort, parental caregiving, and women's and men's log hourly wages.ResultsIntense parental caregiving was associated with a 4.8% reduction in women's wages. Baby Boom women did not fare better than their predecessors. Moreover, despite a substantial increase in Baby Boom men's parental care, the association between caregiving and their labor market outcomes was negligible. Similar to their predecessors, married and unmarried Baby Boom men did not pay wage penalties for parental caregiving.ConclusionThese results extend our understanding of the gendered life course and suggest that parental caregiving may contribute to older women's economic disadvantage.

You're the One that I Want! Public Employment and Women's Labor Market Outcomes

In most countries, the public sector hires disproportionally more women than men. We document gender differences in employment, transition probabilities, hours, and wages in the public and private sector using microdata for the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Spain. We then build a search and matching model where men and women decide if to participate and if to enter private or public sector labor markets. We calibrate our model separately to the four countries. Running counterfactual experiments, we quantify whether the selection of women into the public sector is driven by:(i) lower gender wage gaps and thus relatively higher wages for women in the public sector, (ii) possibilities of better conciliation of work and family life for public sector workers, (iii) greater job security in the public compared to the private sector, or (iv) intrinsic preferences for public sector occupations. We find that, quantitatively, women's higher public sector wage premia and their preferences for working in the public sector explain most of the selection. We calculate the monetary value of public sector job security and work-life balance premia, for both men and women, and we estimate how higher public sector wages and employment affect male and female unemployment, inactivity rates, and wages differently.

The Wearing of the Headscarf Labor Market Outcomes for Women in Turkey

The Wearing of the Headscarf Labor Market Outcomes for Women in Turkey

Unequal Laws and the Disempowerment of Women in the Labour Market: Evidence from Firm-Level Data

Institutions are defined as the set of rules that govern human interactions. When these rules are discriminatory, they may disempower segments of a population in the economic spheres of activity. In this study, we explore whether laws that discriminate against women influence their engagement in the economy. We adopt a holistic approach where we explore an overall measure of unequal laws also known as legal gender disparities and relate it to several labour market outcomes for women. Using data for over 59,000 firms across 94 economies, we find that unequal laws not only discourage women’s participation in the private sector workforce, but also their likelihood to become top managers and owners of firms. Suggestive evidence indicates that access to finance, property ownership, business registration, and labour market constraints are pathways by which legal gender disparities disempower women in the private sector.

Trade liberalization and gender inequality: role of social norms

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of trade liberalization on gender earning differentials and female labour force participation by considering the interaction between changes in relative wages, intra-household bargaining power and social norms.Design/methodology/approachA three-sector general equilibrium model is developed where female labour supply is determined as a collective household decision and depends on male and female wages and intra-household power distribution. On the other hand, the effect of power distribution on female labour supply depends on social norms.FindingsComparative static analysis shows that a tariff cut may reduce female labour force participation and widen gender earning inequality if (i) the agricultural sector is more male labour-intensive than the informal sector, and the marginal utility of the woman from household work is higher than that of the man or (ii) the agricultural sector is more female labour-intensive than the informal sector, and the marginal utility of the woman’s household work is higher to the man than the woman. Policies to raise the empowerment of women might lead to favourable labour market outcomes for women if the marginal utility of the woman’s household work is higher to the man than the woman irrespective of the factor intensity condition.Research limitations/implicationsThe results signify that the effect of trade liberalization hinges on both factor intensity conditions and the relative work preferences of women vis-à-vis men, which in turn is shaped by social norms.Originality/valueThe paper contributes to the scant theoretical literature on labour market consequences of trade liberalization by considering the gender equality implications of trade liberalization from a supply side perspective. The results of the model are used to explain the recent gendered labour market consequences in India in the aftermath of trade liberalization.

Male Migration and Female Labor Market Attachment

This study examines the impact of male migration to the United States on female labor market outcomes in Mexico, using the longitudinal data set from the Mexican Family Life Survey. I differentiate between domestic and cross-border migration, as well as other types of absence, and account for their differential effects. The first-difference approach is employed to address the econometric issues of endogeneity and self-selection. Findings show that the effects of cross-border migration on the labor market outcomes of left-behind women appear to be limited in the short term. Domestic migration is not a major factor that influences the labor market outcomes of women.

Arab spring protests and women's labor market outcomes: Evidence from the Egyptian revolution

We analyze the effects of the 2011 Egyptian protests on the relative labor market conditions of women using panel data from the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS). Using unique information from the Statistical Database of the Egyptian Revolution, we geocode each “martyr”, i.e. demonstrators who died during the protests, based on the location of the political incident. We construct our measure of the intensity of the protests – the district-level number of “martyrs” – and rely on a Difference-in-Differences approach. We find that the 2011 protests have reduced intra-household differences in labor force participation by increasing women's employment and unemployment relative to men. Women's employment relative to men increased in both the private and informal sectors. Our estimates suggest how economic uncertainty such as the one associated to the recent protests may undermine the importance of cultural factors and attitudes towards female work. We link these findings to the literature showing how a relevant shock to the labor division between women and men may have long run consequences on the role of women in society.

Education, Marriage, and Fertility: Long-Term Evidence from a Female Stipend Program in Bangladesh

In 1994, Bangladesh introduced the Female Secondary School Stipend Program that made secondary education free for rural girls. This paper examines the long-term effects of the stipend program on education, marriage, fertility, and labor market outcomes of women. We find that the stipend increased years of education for eligible girls by 14%–25%. These girls were more likely to get married later and have fewer children. They also had more autonomy in making decisions about household purchases, health care, and visiting relatives. They were more likely to work in the formal sector than the agricultural or informal sector. Eligible women were likely to marry more educated husbands who had better occupations and were closer in age to their own. Their children’s health outcomes also improved. These results imply that school-based stipend programs can increase female empowerment through positive effects on schooling and marriage market outcomes over the long term.

Gender, Occupational Segregation, and the Cultural Divide: Are Red States Different than Blue States?

This paper examines geographic differences in occupational segregation by sex in male-dominated, high-education STEM and non-STEM occupations to determine if labor market conditions for women vary according to red-state/blue-state patterns. Controlling for state demographic variables, economic factors, and labor market characteristics, our results show that there are indeed differences in labor market outcomes along red-state/blue-state lines, with blue states showing more integrated labor market outcomes than red states. Our results suggest that there may indeed be important differences in labor market outcomes for women associated with values differences in red versus blue states.

Women make houses, women make homes

This paper examines the persistent effects of historical labor market institutions and policies on women's long-term labor market outcomes. We quantify these enduring effects by exploring quasi-experimental variation in Germany's post-World War II mandatory reconstruction policy, which compelled women to work in the rubble removal and reconstruction process. Using difference-in-differences and instrumental variable approaches, we find that mandatory employment during the postwar era generated persistent adverse effects on women's long-term labor market outcomes. An increase in marriage and fertility rates in the postwar era and a physical and mental exhaustion associated with manual labor are some of the direct and indirect channels potentially explaining our results.

Land Market Restrictions, Women's Labour Force Participation and Wages in a Rural Economy

AbstractWe analyse the effects of land market restrictions on the rural labour market outcomes for women. The existing literature emphasizes two mechanisms through which land restrictions can affect economic outcomes: collateral value of land, and (in)security of property rights. Our analysis focuses on an alternative mechanism where land restrictions increase costs of migration out of villages. Testable prediction of collateral channel is that wages remain unchanged, but the effects on labour force participation are ambiguous. Insecurity of property rights in land reduces labour force participation, but leaves wages undisturbed. In contrast, if land restrictions work primarily through higher migration costs, labour force participation increases, while wages decline. For identification, we exploit a natural experiment in Sri Lanka where historical malaria played a unique role in land policy. We provide robust evidence of a positive effect of land restrictions on women's labour force participation, but a negative effect on female wages. The empirical results thus contradict a collateral or insecure property rights effect, but supports migration costs as the primary mechanism.

Childcare effects on maternal employment: Evidence from Chile

Using a randomized experiment, this study examines whether offering afterschool care for children aged between 6 and 13 has an impact on labor market outcomes for women in Chile. The results show that program participation increases employment by 5% and labor force participation by 7%, while the intervention also generates substantial childcare substitution. The results also suggest that the provision of afterschool care for older children triggers the use of free daycare for young (ineligible) children.

Vocational and business training to improve women's labour market outcomes in low‐ and middle‐income countries: a systematic review

Vocational and business training to improve women's labour market outcomes in low‐ and middle‐income countries: a systematic review

Gender Disparities in Employment and Earnings in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Swaziland

In this paper we provide first systematic evidence on the gender disparities in the labor market in Swaziland, drawing on the country's first two (2007 and 2010) Labor Force Surveys. We find that even though the global financial crisis had a less severe effect on the labor market outcomes of women than those of men, women continue to have lower employment and labor force participation rates. Utilizing the Heckman probit selection model shows that while women account for a disproportionate share of the self-employed, they are more often than men involved in low-productivity activities and rely less on formal finance. We conclude with policies that could help Swaziland – and other middle income countries in Sub-Saharan Africa – narrow these disparities and embark on a more inclusive growth path.

Women Make Houses, Women Make Homes

This paper examines the persistent effects of historical labor market institutions and policies on women's long-term labor market outcomes. We quantify these enduring effects by exploring quasi-experimental variation in Germany's post-World War II mandatory reconstruction policy, which compelled women to work in the rubble removal and reconstruction process. Using difference-in-differences and instrumental variable approaches, we find that mandatory employment during the postwar era generated persistent adverse effects on women's long-term labor market outcomes. An increase in marriage and fertility rates in the postwar era and a physical and mental exhaustion associated with manual labor are some of the direct and indirect channels potentially explaining our results.

Fertility at work: Children and women's labor market outcomes in urban Ghana

While it is commonly assumed that fertility decreases female labor supply, I show theoretically that fertility can increase female labor supply if returns to financial inputs in children are sufficiently high compared to returns to time investments. Using six rounds of a panel survey from urban Ghana, I find evidence of countervailing effects behind a net zero effect of young children on women's hours of work: labor supply on the extensive margin drops, but women who remain in the labor force increase their hours in response to a child. Women's labor supply particularly increases in response to a young child if there are older siblings or other adults in the household. By contrast, men's labor supply does not change in response to young children.

Women Military Veterans, Disability, and Employment

This study contributes to the growing body of literature about women veterans of the U.S. military by investigating how veteran status and disability are related to women’s ability to work. The study uses nationally representative data to analyze labor market outcomes of women who served in the U.S. military since 1973, with a focus on findings about women who have served since 2001. Results indicate women who served after 2001 are more likely to have a disability when compared to men veterans and women nonveterans. Those women veterans who do not have a disability are more likely to be employed than their nonveteran counterparts, net of controls for demographic factors. Disability, including service-related disability, is strongly related to unemployment and being out of the labor force. The discussion considers the implications of women’s military service for their ability to work.

Breaking with Dogma: Unorthodox Consumption Patterns and Women's Labor Market Outcomes in Turkey

ABSTRACTUsing information about household consumption data from TURKSTAT's Household Surveys for 2007–13 as a sign of religious unorthodoxy, this study explores the effect of religion on women's labor force and educational participation in a Muslim-majority country, Turkey. A household is categorized as “unorthodox” if its members report that they consume goods that contradict conservative Sunni practices, such as alcohol. This information is then used in female labor force participation estimations. Results show that living in an unorthodox household has a positive and highly significant effect on the probability of married women's labor market participation. For single women, the estimations provide weaker evidence regarding the positive effect of unorthodoxy on the probability of participation in education and the labor force. The study concludes that protection of the rights to follow unorthodox practices in society may bear positive implications with regard to women's agency.