Labour Market Gender Research Articles

Trade liberalization and gender inequality: role of social norms

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of trade liberalization on gender earning differentials and female labour force participation by considering the interaction between changes in relative wages, intra-household bargaining power and social norms.Design/methodology/approachA three-sector general equilibrium model is developed where female labour supply is determined as a collective household decision and depends on male and female wages and intra-household power distribution. On the other hand, the effect of power distribution on female labour supply depends on social norms.FindingsComparative static analysis shows that a tariff cut may reduce female labour force participation and widen gender earning inequality if (i) the agricultural sector is more male labour-intensive than the informal sector, and the marginal utility of the woman from household work is higher than that of the man or (ii) the agricultural sector is more female labour-intensive than the informal sector, and the marginal utility of the woman’s household work is higher to the man than the woman. Policies to raise the empowerment of women might lead to favourable labour market outcomes for women if the marginal utility of the woman’s household work is higher to the man than the woman irrespective of the factor intensity condition.Research limitations/implicationsThe results signify that the effect of trade liberalization hinges on both factor intensity conditions and the relative work preferences of women vis-à-vis men, which in turn is shaped by social norms.Originality/valueThe paper contributes to the scant theoretical literature on labour market consequences of trade liberalization by considering the gender equality implications of trade liberalization from a supply side perspective. The results of the model are used to explain the recent gendered labour market consequences in India in the aftermath of trade liberalization.

Enterprise Restructuring and Labor Market Gender Gaps in Urban China

Enterprise Restructuring and Labor Market Gender Gaps in Urban China

Gender and the Labour Market in Ghana: The Relationship in Terms of the Family, the Market and the State

The phenomenon of sex-segregation in the labour market continues to exist in a growing economy such as Ghana. The sex-based traditional occupational system of the economic sector is deeply rooted in the beliefs systems of the people. And so, the gender division of labour continues to define gender relationship among people in the society. Consequently, gender division of labour finds meaning and interpretation within the labour market in Ghana. However, for some reasons, people do overcome this occupational segregation by engaging in jobs that are by custom not meant for their sexuality. This statement reveals an inherent assumption about gender and the labour market; which needs further reflection and critical analysis. This paper focuses on gender and the labour market in Kumasi (a commercial town in Ghana); focusing on the gender identities, ideologies as well as symbols that affect the whole gamut of the labour market as a gendered institution in Ghana. Similarly, how the labour market interacts in the context of the family and the state respectively, will also be given a fair attention. The argument is categorised into ten steps: first; introduction of the subject matter, second; the region of Kumasi; the unit of analysis, third; methodology, fourth; an overview of the labour market in Ghana, fifth; the mode of entering/gaining access into food vending industry by men, sixth; challenges men face in the food vending industry in Kumasi, seventh; gender in food vending business verses socio-cultural practices, eighth; gender-labour market nexus; implication on the family and the state and finally, what the State, civil society organisations as well as the individuals or groups, need to do to improve this sector are recommended.

Parents’ decision on child labour and school attendance: evidence from Iranian households

In the framework of a household’s collective decision processes, this study presents a structural empirical model to test the hypothesis that child labour is compelled by household’s poverty and parent’s bargaining power against one another. To this end, a measure for mother’s intra-household bargaining power is developed. I use Iranian Household’s Income and Expenditures Surveys (2005 and 2010). Estimation method used in this study is multinomial logit. Findings indicate that household’s poverty is not the sole cause of child’s work incidence. Instead, given the other factors such as poverty, being the first born, local labour market prospect and gender fixed, mother’s bargaining power is found as a significant determinant of child’s work and school attendance. However, the magnitude of its marginal effects vary by gender and across geographical areas.

Labor Force Participation of Immigrant Women in the Netherlands: Do Traditional Partners Hold Them Back?

Female labor force participation (FLFP) rates often vary across ethnic groups. This study examined the role of the partner's labor market resources and gender role attitudes for FLFP in different ethnic groups. Cross-sectional data of women in partnerships from the four biggest immigrant groups in the Netherlands and from a native Dutch control group were analyzed. Traditional gender role attitudes of partners were negatively related to FLFP and partly explained ethnic differences therein. Moreover, across all groups, the relation between partners’ labor market resources and FLFP was more negative for traditional women and rather absent for egalitarian women.

How Stress Affects Performance and Competitiveness across Gender

Since many key career events, such as exams and interviews, involve competition and stress, gender differences in response to these factors could help to explain the labor-market gender gaps. In a laboratory experiment, we manipulate psychosocial stress using the Trier Social Stress Test, and confirm that this is effective by measuring salivary cortisol. Subjects perform a real-effort task under both tournament and piece-rate incentives and we elicit willingness to compete. We find that women under heightened stress do worse than women in the control group when compensated with tournament incentives, while there is no treatment difference for performance under piece-rate incentives. For males, stress does not affect output under competition. We also find that stress decreases willingness to compete overall, and for women, this is related to performance. These results help to explain previous findings on gender differences in performance under competition both in and out of the lab.

How Stress Affects Performance and Competitiveness across Gender

Since many key career events, such as exams and interviews, involve competition and stress, gender differences in response to these factors could help to explain the labor-market gender gap. In a laboratory experiment, we manipulate psychosocial stress using the Trier Social Stress Test, and confirm that this is effective by measuring salivary cortisol. Subjects perform a real-effort task under both tournament and piece-rate incentives and we elicit willingness to compete. We find that women under heightened stress do worse than women in the control group when compensated with tournament incentives, while there is no treatment difference for performance under piece-rate incentives. For males, stress does not affect output under competition. We also find that stress decreases willingness to compete overall, and for women, this is related to performance. These results help to explain previous findings on gender differences in performance under competition both in and out of the lab.

The Labor Market Gender Gap in Denmark: Sorting Out the Past 30 Years

The Labor Market Gender Gap in Denmark: Sorting Out the Past 30 Years

Labour Discrimination Related to Pregnancy and Motherhood in Croatia

In 2012, Croatian Office for Gender Equality published report on position of pregnant workers and working mothers on the national labour market. Survey results clearly demonstrated concerning situation in the labour market where every second pregnant woman was dismissed due to pregnancy. The remaining 50% of pregnant workers and working mothers faced denial of one or more labour rights due to pregnancy or childcare. Apart from violation of basic human rights in the labour market, pregnant workers and working mothers faced discriminatory practices in financial sector i.e. denial of right to take bank loans. These practices are contrary to current Croatian labour and gender equality legislation, as well as European and international legal standards related to protection of pregnant workers and working mothers. Nonethless, due to high national unemployment rate, women faced with labour discrimination rarely use available legal remedies. This paper analysis legal framework applicable to labour discrimination of pregnant workers and working mothers, primarily through the lens of applicable European acquis communautaire i.e. Directives. It also investigates case law of Croatian courts and the European Court of Justice related to labour discrimination of pregnant workers and working mothers. More specifically, research explores convergences and divergences of national and European case law. The aim of the paper is to contribute to academic discussions on the labour market gender equality and measures necessary to achieve full respect of all national and international legal standards.

Multiplex Migration and Aspects of Precarization: Swedish Retirement Migrants to Spain and their Service Providers

Exploring the relations between different migrants who meet in Spain, this article discusses issues of mobility, the globalization of care and service work, and precarization of labor and livelihoods, of crucial importance to welfare states and the future of work and retirement conditions in Europe. A mélange of migratory processes are scrutinized along a Swedish-Spanish North-South axis. It analyzes longstanding conditions on the Spanish labor market combined with neoliberal de- and reregulation of work and welfare with a bearing on spatial and social inequalities across the European Union. From a relational approach, the authors examine conditions of Swedish retirement migrants in Spain and of the workers and entrepreneurs who provide care and services for them. Social networks, intermediaries and subcontractors are crucial to organization of migration as well as work and services. Some of these workers, especially third country migrants, occupy precarious, and sometimes informalized, low skilled jobs in an ethnically segmented and gendered labor market.

« Peut-on faire l’économie du genre ? », Regards croisés sur l’économie , n° 15, Paris, La Découverte, 2014, 240 p.

Gianni betti, Francesca bettio, Thomas georgiAdis, Platon tinios, Unequal Ageing in Europe. Women' s Independence and New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2015, X-187 p.A considerable body of literature exists on gender pay gap but few studies have been done on gender gap in pensions. Research only began on question in mid-1990s (Jefferson 2009). This book, then, is a welcome addition to small number of existing studies, and is particularly useful in providing statistical data for international comparison, virtually non-existent until now. One reason gender dimension has been absent from this debate is that malefemale pension inequality did not necessarily result in unequal living standards upon retirement. When marriage was predominant, stable form of conjugal life, fact that women's personal pensions were low was not a problem; it could be assumed that couple members would pool their income until spouse's death, at which point retirement system would begin paying out a survivor's pension.The gender pension gap became a social and research concern when a variety of changes occurred that called afore-cited arrangements into question. First, assumption of income pooling within couple may not be valid, and, as authors note, having one's own pension is a major determinant of economic independence, especially since pensions represent better part of income for a considerable proportion of retirees. It is therefore legitimate to enquire into impact of labour market gender gaps at time of retirement and how they are evolving. While women's massive entry into labour market has narrowed pension gaps, it is still difficult to apprehend magnitude of that reduction and how it is going forward. Moreover, women's rising participation in labour force has gone together with an increase in non-standard and part-time jobs. It has occurred in context of retirement policy reforms that have redefined pension calculation parameters, shifted emphasis from basic retirement benefits (where disparities were relatively low) to contribution plans (the second pillar), extended working years and adversely impacted on policies that directly or indirectly targeted women (i.e., family and conjugal benefits). Another reason, not directly mentioned in book, is increased importance of individual benefits at a time when conjugal behaviours have been undergoing profound change. When generations implicated in rising divorce rate or who have chosen unions other than marriage reach retirement age, they will radically alter structure of retired population.After explaining why it is important to be attentive to gaps between men's and women's pensions, authors present two indicators for studying them (Chapter 2). The first is Gender Gap in Pensions, calculated as one minus women's average pension income divided by men's average pension income; this applies only to individuals who have a pension. The second is the coverage rate, which integrates persons without a retirement pension, a group that may vary proportionally by country, age and of course sex. Calculating these indicators is not as simple as it seems because of difficulties in defining retirees and pensions (e.g., should private pensions be included?), especially for purpose of international comparison. Valid comparisons can only be made on basis of suitable databases. The authors draw on Survey on Income and Living Conditions or EU-SILC, a harmonised database for Europe. Further on, they enquire into feasibility of using administrative data, pointing out that though each country may prefer to use its own administrative data to compile statistics, this may make international comparisons more difficult. …

Labour market impact of four recessions on women and men in Greece: Comparative analysis in a long term perspective

<p>The current economic crisis in Greece has<br />produced a dramatic fall in male and female<br />employment and driven unemployment to<br />historically unprecedented levels. This article<br />compares gender differences in the labour<br />market impact of the current crisis with those<br />of the three previous recessions: 1974, 1980-83,<br />1990-1993. We have found large discrepancies in<br />the gender impact between the four recessions.<br />These are due to differences in their nature and<br />duration, the sectors and industries hit each<br />time and the trends of women’s labour force<br />participation before the eruption of the crisis.<br />The structural nature of the current crisis and the<br />negative repercussions of the deep and prolonged<br />recession on the services sector that concentrates<br />the great bulk of female employment explain<br />why the gendered labour market impact of the<br />current crisis is different from that of previous<br />recessions. Male employment has been more<br />hit than female employment until now, but<br />the spread of the recession to services reversed<br />the long term trend of increase in the female<br />employment rate. By contrast, in all three<br />previous recessions, the tertiary sector had played<br />a protective, compensating and enhancing role<br />for women’s employment.</p>

Facilitating the professional transition of migrants in Australia: does gender matter?

This article explores the provision and effects of a program devised to facilitate the professional transition of skilled migrants from non‐English‐speaking backgrounds (NESB) arriving in Australia on permanent visas. The program (‘Skilled Professional Migrants Program’—SPMP) was delivered by AMES Australia and internally evaluated through a telephone survey of 337 past participants. A report of survey results, primarily gauging short‐term post‐program employment outcomes, presented a very positive picture. In this paper we take a fresh look at the quantitative and qualitative survey data in order to analyse the success of the program from the perspective of gender. The paper focuses on gender differences in professional employment transition post‐program in the context of the structural impact of the gendered labour market. We found a significant difference between NESB men and women in their post‐program labour market incorporation into professional jobs that matched their skills. The gendered structures also influenced the ‘networking effect’ of the professional transition program.

The Gendered Labor Market Impacts of Trade Liberalization

The Gendered Labor Market Impacts of Trade Liberalization

Gender and the business cycle: An analysis of labour markets in the US and UK

Starting from an improved understanding of the relationship between gender labour market stocks and the business cycle, we analyse the contributing role of flows in the US and UK. Focusing on the post 2008 recession period, the subsequent greater rise in male unemployment can mostly be explained by a less cyclical response of flows between employment and unemployment for women, especially the entry into unemployment. Across gender and country, the inactivity rate is generally not sensitive to the state of the economy. However, a flows based analysis reveals a greater importance of the participation margin over the cycle. Changes in the rates of flow between unemployment and inactivity can each account for around 0.8–1.1 percentage points of the rise in US male and female unemployment rates during the latest downturn. For the UK, although the participation flow to unemployment similarly contributed to the increase of the female unemployment rate, this was not the case for men. The countercyclical flow rate from inactivity to employment was also more significant for women, especially in the US, where it accounted for approximately all of the fall in employment, compared with only 40% for men.

Determinants of labour market gender inequalities in Cameroon, Senegal and Mali: the role of human capital and fertility burden

ABSTRACTThis study aims to measure the impact of human capital and fertility on labour market inequalities between men and women, in particular regarding access to the highest-paid jobs, in Cameroon, Mali and Senegal. The findings show that women's chances of attaining the top job segment are worse than men's, even with the same education level. Raising a large family (the “fertility burden”) has a direct negative impact in Mali and Senegal, and an indirect negative impact in Cameroon and Senegal, via its interaction with the education levels (the more children a woman has, the lower her marginal return to education).

Restructuring women’s work; labour market and household gender regimes in the Greater Latrobe Valley, Australia

This article examines the impact of economic restructuring on gender relations. It examines the implications of labour market change for households within a region, in this case the Greater Latrobe Valley, Victoria, Australia. The argument is that the unchanging gender structures of the labour market constrain the intentions and efforts of individuals within households to significantly alter household gender relations. The analysis considers how restructuring has reshaped the regional labour market since 1996, changing opportunities for both men’s and women’s employment. Despite these changes, the regional labour market continues to be underpinned by a ‘male breadwinner’ gender regime and significant occupational and industrial gender segregation. Drawing on four vignettes, the analysis shows that the impetus towards greater gender equality in the household is constrained by a stagnant and stable labour market gender regime.

Employment Gender Inequality: Overlook of Georgian Labor Market

Labor market gender disparity – is the problem for many country. Employment sphere gender vertical and horizontal segregation and gender stratification refers to the overrepresentation of women or men in certain types of jobs and their under-representation in others. Despite of passage of the legislation guaranteeing equal employment opportunities and equal pay for women and men, despite some progress in the achieving of gender equality in different sphere of life, the employment sphere remains highly gender-segregated. Employment gender disparities can be given in terms of labor market participation, occupation, employment sectors, and income. This research is concentrated on the particularities of employment gender disparity in Georgia. Given paper presents the analyze of labor market in Georgia by criteria such as: gender differences in labor force participation and employment rate, employment gender division by kind of activity, occupation, employment status, and gender pay disparity. For the calculation and analysis of the pay gender disproportion two indexes are used: the Index of Pay Gender Differentiation (PGD) and the Index of Pay Gender Gap (PGG).

Gender policies meet VET practices – the case of health and social care in Norway

Could the labour market gender balance be improved by introducing new types of apprenticeship-trained workers? This article investigates what happened in the wake of the Norwegian VET programme for health and social care, a new approach introduced via the 1994 educational reform. By upgrading this traditionally female-dominated area of education, it was hoped that working conditions for women would improve and that, over time, the gender balance among workers would improve. Hence, Norwegian VET policy became a means to meet and the ambitions set by national policies for gender equality. Twenty years on, health and social care remains the most popular VET programme for female applicants. However, only a minority of those attending the school-based part of the education applies for apprenticeships as health care workers; most opt to switch to general education in order to access higher education. Those who stay on typically hold part-time jobs. This area of the labour market remains segregated in terms of gender. Based on extensive quantitative and qualitative data, the article discusses what might explain this development.

Support for part-time work as a channel to female employment: the moderating effects of national gender empowerment and labour market conditions

Using a multi-source data set collected across eight European countries, this article examines how characteristics of both the organizational environment and the larger national context relate to the organizational-level variable of women's employment. Our study revealed that, in countries that were high in gender empowerment measure (GEM), establishments that were more supportive of part-time work options also employed a higher proportion of women. One reason for this relationship may be that in high-GEM countries offering part-time employment is a way for an organization to signal its support for work–life balance, something that makes it more attractive to women. In countries with low GEM, an establishment's greater support for part-time work was associated with employing a greater proportion of women only when establishments experienced recruitment difficulties. Key differences in gender empowerment between countries are discussed.