L2 Writers Research Articles

AI technologies in the ESL/EFL writing classroom: The villain or the champion?

The impact of AI technologies, particularly ChatGPT, on the ESL/EFL writing classroom is unprecedented. In response to the focus paper by Warschauer and colleagues regarding this issue, this paper shares some insights from the experiences teaching English writing at the post-secondary level in Thailand. Due to the lack of institutional policies on the use of AI technologies, we need to devise our own strategies for our classes. While students are encouraged to use their voices instead of relying on AI, we attempt to adapt our practice by incorporating AI generators in a productive way to help students enhance their potential as L2 writers. However, there has been a debate among writing teachers in our context whether to accept AI tools as a part of teaching and learning.

AI tools as affordances and contradictions for EFL writers: Emic perspectives and L1 use as a resource

This article responds to Warschauer et al. (this issue), which discusses the affordances and challenges generative AI tools offer the L2 writing field. Although the contradictions posited by Warschauer et al. resonate deeply, they seem somewhat lacking. Of these, two are conspicuous and related to the L2 writers themselves: (1) the emic (insider) perspective, and (2) an exploration of the writer's L1 literacy as a resource for L2 writing. I explore two of the three contradictions discussed by Warschauer et al. and offer alternative viewpoints grounded in emic and L1 literacy perspectives. In support, I use a study my colleagues and I recently completed (Sasaki et al., under review), which compared the effects of teacher corrective feedback (TCF) and AI machine translation (MT) as feedback. The findings of the study show that especially in EFL contexts, (a) AI can enhance L2 writing, with L2 writers’ L1 literacy being a crucial factor in this improvement, and (b) AI tools can raise L2 writers’ ability at all levels if used strategically. The article advocates a non-deficit view of L2 writers, with AI having the potential to further empower them, minimize unnecessary challenges, and ultimately foster academic inclusivity and excellence.

Beyond ChatGPT: Multimodal generative AI for L2 writers

In response to Warschauer et al.’s paper on the affordances and contradictions of AI-generated text, we as researchers in multimodal literacy focus on discussing the two affordances of multimodal generative AI models for L2 writers, such as (1) exploring and fostering multimodal literacy and (2) developing fine-tuned prompt literacy.

Feedback as Scaffolded Instruction in the Assessment of L2 Writing Tasks

This study focuses on exploring the relationship between the concept of learner autonomy and foreign language writing feedback. A sample of 4 writing conferences were transcribed in order to carry out spoken discourse analysis based on the Burton (1981) model, which is directly derived from the Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) model. The aim was to linguistically ascertain the instructor’s attempt to stimulate learner autonomy through scaffolding based on the three principles of Little (2000). It was important to also take into cognizance the concomitant discourse that accompanies such an attempt in an effort to compare the findings with those observed in the initial study done on conferences, which involved more holistic feedback on the whole essay. The design also made use of short retrospective self-reports where L2 writers recorded their thoughts and comments directly following the feedback they received in each conference. This study builds on a previous study which demonstrated how writing instructors often mistakenly presuppose that learners have reached their perspective on a writing revision. This happens at a point much earlier than expected when in fact, learners appear to be cognitively engaged at a point much later than when they claim understanding of the revision being made. The present study expands on the original by comparing the quality of discourse observed in the previous study, which involved more holistic feedback on writing, especially when feedback is more focused and limited to one section of writing. Findings suggest that minimizing feedback results in instructor discourse that is more superior as a scaffolding instrument, while learner discourse shows more evidence of metacognitive activity and reflection. Paradoxically, curtailing feedback which facilitates learning and task acquisition during the assessment of writing actually renders it more scaffolded in nature, thus resulting in more positive outcomes for both the instructor and L2 learner. The theoretical and pedagogical implications of this are discussed extensively.

Analysis of errors in the writing of content in dissertations and their impact on the learning of foreign languages: A case study in Ghana

The average postgraduate student in Ghana has about 20 years exposure in English language, having been taught and instructed in English from primary to tertiary level. It is, therefore, not far-fetched to expect the postgraduate student to commit minimal to no errors in their L2 writings. The seeming consequential minimal scholarly attention on errors in postgraduate writings regardless of the many studies on students’ errors is therefore not surprising. This study is an attempt to identify, categorise and describe the errors in postgraduate dissertations in Ghana and highlight its implications for language teaching. This exploratory qualitative study carries out a content analysis of 20 randomly selected MA, MPhil and PhD dissertations published between 2020 and 2021. The data are analysed using the theory of Error Analysis. After critically assessing the dissertations, seven (7) categories of concord errors were identified and recorded. These are; subject-verb concord errors, inverted subject concord errors, concord errors associated with ‘has’ and ‘have’, determiner-noun errors, concord errors on numbers, noun-pronoun antecedent errors and compound subject concord errors. This implies that postgraduate students are prone to errors, hence, the need to introduce or intensify the teaching of English at the postgraduate level.

Source-based writing of the high- and low-proficiency adolescent writer in the high-school L2 classroom

Writing from sources is a fundamental academic skill that poses a challenge for students at all educational levels. However, few studies have investigated source use in the high-school context. The current study examines the source-based writing of 43 adolescent writers in a high-school second-language (L2) classroom. Students were classified into high- (N = 25) and low-proficiency (N = 18) levels based on scores obtained on an integrated writing task. They then completed an additional integrated writing task. Essays were analysed for four variables: amount of source use, accuracy of source ideas, thoroughness of attribution to source authors, and language used to integrate source information. Correlation coefficients suggested a significant relationship between writing scores and certain source-use patterns. Independent samples t-tests revealed significant differences between the two proficiency groups for accuracy of source use, thoroughness of attribution to source authors, verbatim copying with no citation, and indirect source use with implicit citation. The findings suggest that although high-school L2 writers are ready to meet certain demands of source-based writing, they require support in source-use subskills. This has implications for the eventual creation of pedagogical interventions designed to guide novice writers at this educational level through the developmental process of achieving effective source-based writing.

Development of clausal and phrasal complexity in L2 writing: A case of argumentative essays of Korean college students

This study aims to estimate the developmental trajectory of grammatical complexity for L2 writers by investigating the extent to which clausal and phrasal complexity is associated with L2 writing proficiency. The corpus used in this study contained 234 argumentative essays of first-year Korean college students at three proficiency levels. The five clausal and four phrasal features were extracted from the tagged corpus to count the frequency of each complexity feature. Our findings demonstrated an association between writing proficiency and clausal and phrasal complexity. Especially noteworthy was that the main source of complexity at each proficiency level (i.e., finite adverbial clauses, WH relative clauses, of phrases as nominal postmodifiers) showed a gradual increase in complexity in terms of two parameters: structural type and syntactic function. A qualitative follow-up analysis provided a detailed description of differences among developmental levels, especially with respect to the lexical associations of particular complexity features. Pedagogical implications are for using empirically derived developmental stages in creating detailed rating scale descriptors and providing more customized writing courses accordingly.

Do more proficient writers use fewer cognates in L2? A computational approach

AbstractBilinguals often show evidence of cross language influences, such as facilitation in processing cognates. Here we use computational methods for analyzing spontaneous English texts written by hundreds of speakers of different L1s, at different levels of English proficiency, to investigate writers’ preference for using cognates over alternative word choices. We focus on English, since a majority of its lexicon is either of Romance or Germanic origin, allowing an investigation of the preference of speakers of Germanic and Romance L1s towards cognates between their L1 and English. Results show that L2 writers tend to prefer English cognates, and that this tendency is weaker as English proficiency level increases, suggesting diminishing effects of CLI. However, a comparison of the L2 writers with native English writers shows general overuse of cognates only for the Germanic, but not the Romance, L1 speakers, most likely due to the register of argumentative writing.

Child L2 Writers: A Room of Their Own. Lázaro‐Ibarrola, A.John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2023.

Child L2 Writers: A Room of Their Own. Lázaro‐Ibarrola, A.John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2023.

Deconstructing Summary Writing: Further Exploration of L2 Reading and Writing

The hybrid nature of reading-to-write tasks calls for more empirical research on understanding the relationship between L2 reading, writing, and proficiency. This study examines summaries written by 46 Emirati university students, who were asked to write a 150-word summary of an expository text on the topic of “consumerism” during class hours. The summary was assessed based on an analytic rubric. It was also assessed quantitatively in terms of the inclusion of the number of important ideas from the source text, namely, content analysis scores. In addition, the students’ language proficiency, reading proficiency, and writing proficiency had already been externally ascertained with their recent IELTS scores. Significantly positive correlations were found between summary scores and IELTS reading scores, IELTS writing scores, and IELTS proficiency scores. Only a significantly positive relationship was found between content analysis scores and IELTS reading scores, but not the IELTS writing scores and IELTS proficiency scores. This implies the importance of enhancing students’ reading, writing, and language proficiency to help them write an effective summary, and reading in itself is insufficient in the production of an effective summary.

A STUDY ON THE LEVEL OF COGNITIVE FACTORS, AFFECTIVE FACTORS AND WRITING PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN PAPER 4 OF THE MALAYSIAN UNIVERSITY ENGLISH TEST IN MALAYSIA

The aim of this study is to analyse the level of cognitive (background knowledge, thinking maps use, critical thinking) factors, affective (writing self-efficacy, second language (L2) writing anxiety) factors and writing performance among students. This research adopts a quantitative approach through a survey methodology. The sample comprises 400 Malaysian University English Test (MUET) students from 26 schools in Penang, Malaysia. Data has been collected using six instruments: five questionnaires as well as one argumentative writing task. Descriptive statistics, including mean, percentage, frequency, and standard deviation, have been used to answer the research question. The outcomes indicate that the levels of background knowledge, writing self-efficacy, critical thinking, thinking maps use, and L2 writing anxiety are moderate. Because writing is an integral part of MUET, the outcomes of this study can serve as a springboard from which teachers can gain a deeper appreciation for background knowledge, writing self-efficacy, critical thinking, thinking maps use, and L2 writing anxiety. As a result, it may shed light on what teachers may do to assist these L2 writers in improving their background knowledge, writing self-efficacy, critical thinking, thinking maps use and overcoming their writing anxiety, which possesses a negative impact on their output.

Feedback literacy in writing research and teaching: Advancing L2 WCF research agendas

Research on corrective feedback (CF) has developed from its original focus on identifying which type of CF is most effective for developing L2 language learners’ grammatical accuracy to focusing on how learners use CF. Underpinning this is the assumption that learners know what to do with CF when they receive it. The concept of “feedback literacy” challenges this assumption. Carless and Boud (2018), define feedback literacy as “the understandings, capacities and dispositions needed to make sense of information and use it to enhance work or learning strategies” (p. 1316). Our intention in this paper is to reflect on the manner in which theoretical and empirical work on feedback literacy can contribute to advancing L2 written corrective feedback (WCF) research agendas. Central in our proposal is the partially under-researched aspect of experience in terms of the L2 writers’ educational background experience, particularly experience with L1 and L2 writing. We further argue that how learners were taught L1 writing and how the L1 educational culture/ society values writing can impact on how learners approach L2 writing tasks and accompanying feedback. Implications of this inclusive view of the learner for future research and pedagogy is discussed.

Exploring collocational complexity in L2 Russian: A corpus-driven contrastive analysis

Objective: The objective of this article is to discuss the pedagogical and practical need for automated assessment tools that enable teachers, researchers, and other language practitioners to relatively quickly and automatically assess the general proficiency of second language (L2) speakers according to a number of different linguistic parameters, specifically the use of collocations. Introduction: The Introduction discusses existing approaches to the concept of collocation and its role in L2 corpus studies. Methods: In the main part, Toward the automatic detection of collocational strength, we describe an approach to assessing collocations in Russian L2 written production, which is based on the corpus-driven contrastive analysis. In brief, this approach proposes ranking L2 collocations in accordance with the “collocational scores” of bigrams extracted from a reference (L1) corpus, with the assumption that the greater number of native-like bigrams in an L2 text and the higher collocational scores associated with them, the more proficient is the learner who created the text. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a series of experiments based on an L1 reference corpus and split the L2 datasets into four proficiency groups (Beginner, Intermediate, Advanced, and Superior). Results and evaluation: The findings, presented in the section Results and evaluation of the methods, established an empirical minimum and maximum of mean reciprocal rank (MRR) values, and the variation of the MRR across the four proficiency levels. In the last sections, we discuss shortcomings of the methods and propose further steps for overcoming them. We believe that the proposed method for assessing the collocational skill of Russian L2 writers can be successfully integrated into a bigger system capable of multifaceted automatic assessment of Russian learner texts.

Automated analysis of cohesive features in L2 writing: Examining effects of task complexity and task repetition

Informed by task-based approaches to language teaching, recent L2 writing research has sought to determine the effect of task complexity features on the complexity, accuracy, and fluency of written L2 production (Johnson, 2017). However, two areas of task-informed research have received scant attention: a) the effect of task complexity features on L2 writers’ use of cohesive devices and b) the effect of task repetition as a form of implicit planning. Furthermore, interaction effects of task complexity and task repetition on different types of cohesive devices in L2 writing have not been explored. To bridge these gaps, this study examines the effects of resource-directing task complexity features (Robinson, 2005), task repetition (Lambert et al., 2017), and their interaction on L2 writers’ use of cohesive devices. Ninety-six participants composed two argumentative essays in counterbalanced order: a) a simple task and b) a complex task and then completed a task difficulty questionnaire. After an interval of one week, the participants repeated each task. Essays were then analyzed using the Tool for Automatic Analysis of Cohesion—or TAACO (Crossley et al., 2018)—for indices found to be predictors of human ratings of essay organization (Abdi Tabari & Johnson, 2023). A factorial repeated-measures MANOVA revealed limited effects of task repetition on the participants’ use of cohesive devices. Rather, task complexity features had a more robust effect on their use of textual and local cohesive devices.

Discoursal scholarly identity in research writing

The construction of a discoursal scholarly identity is central to research writing (Hyland, 2013). However, the definition of such an identity is still elusive in current scholarship, and the discussion regarding its construction sporadic. We reviewed relevant research published in English-medium academic journals within the recent two decades (2003–2022) in an attempt to demystify the concept of discoursal scholarly identity and its construction in research writing practices. This literature review identified three main streams of research that focus respectively on (1) the manifestation of a discoursal scholarly identity in academic written discourse, (2) the reconstruction of such an identity by readers, and (3) the construction of such an identity in and through social practices. Key conceptions and features of discoursal scholarly identity as discursively constructed, dialogically negotiated, and dynamic also emerged from such synthesis of literature. We end by identifying and discussing areas for future research on the construction of a discoursal scholarly identity in research writing practices, and the means to inform novice writers, especially L2 writers, of the proper manifestation and negotiation of such an identity in research writing.

Understanding master’s thesis writers in a Finnish EMI context: Writing conceptions, apprehension about grammar, self-efficacy for thesis writing and thesis grade

English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) results in an increasing number of students writing their master’s theses in English as a second language (L2). The thesis process is challenging for many students, and academic writing in L2 English could add to these challenges. However, in EMI contexts, little is known about students’ writing and language-related conceptions and their relationship with writing success. Hence, this study investigates variation within and interconnections between master’s thesis writers’ (N = 283, both L1 and L2 writers) self-efficacy for thesis writing, writing conceptions, apprehension about grammar, and thesis grade in a multilingual EMI university context in Finland. Data analyses included various statistical methods such as t-tests, two-step clustering, and ANOVAs. The findings indicate a positive connection between adaptive writing conceptions, thesis grade, and self-efficacy for thesis writing. Three groups of writers were identified, reflecting different combinations of writing conceptions, with significant differences in thesis grade, self-efficacy for thesis writing and apprehension about grammar. No significant differences were found between L1 and L2 writers.

Influence of integration of multimodal writing portfolios into academic writing courses on novice researchers' academic writing

PurposeMultimodal writing portfolios were introduced and integrated into an undergraduate course and a graduate course in a research-oriented university in northwest Taiwan. This study aims to examine the influence of multimodal writing portfolios of novice researchers' academic writing.Design/methodology/approachComparative case studies involve collecting data from several cases and analyzing the similarities, differences and patterns across cases (Merriam, 2009). To address this underdeveloped area of research, a comparative case study method was employed to understand undergraduate and graduate students' multimodal writing portfolios in academic writing in two courses in Taiwan.FindingsFirst, multimodal writing portfolios enabled novice researchers to be more familiar with the structure of academic paper and they had better performance in intrapersonal and linguistic aspects. Second, novice researchers held positive attitude toward multimodal writing portfolios because they regarded process of making multimodal writing portfolios as preparation for their future academic writing. Finally, participants highly valued the class PowerPoint slides, weekly writing tasks and the instructor's modeling as effective facilitation for making multimodal writing portfolios.Research limitations/implicationsLimited studies focus on multimodal writing portfolios (e.g. Silver, 2019). The present case study explores the integration of a multimodal writing portfolio into one undergraduate and one graduate course to explore learners' attitude and performance in academic writing.Practical implicationsNovice researchers can learn to compose multimodal academic texts for the academic writing community.Social implicationsSuggestions on effective integration of multimodal writing portfolios into academic writing instruction were provided based on the research findings.Originality/valueThe findings of the study provide the field of L2 writing with insights into the pedagogical development of multilingual writing portfolios and help educators to be better prepared for teaching novice researchers to comprehend and compose multimodal texts and enter the academic writing community. The framework in Figure 1 and suggestions on course designs for academic writing can inform educators on the integration of multimodality in academic discourse. Moreover, this study moves beyond general writing courses at the tertiary level and could contribute to L2 writers' deeper understanding of how multimodal writing portfolios can be constructed.

Dynamic development of cohesive devices in English as a second language writing

Abstract The dearth of research examining the progression of cohesion in L2 writing through a time-series research design is evident. Therefore, the current study employs the Complex Dynamic Systems Theory to explore the evolution of cohesive devices in L2 writing. Thirty advanced-level L2 writers from a US university participated over a semester, providing 210 written samples at seven measurement points. Analysis of these samples, utilizing 40 cohesion indices from the Tool for the Automatic Analysis of Cohesion, revealed significant improvement in eight cohesion indices (three local, four global, and one text cohesion indices) with large effect sizes. However, time-series analyses indicated nonlinear trends and variability. Additionally, a positive association was found between two local cohesion indices (lexical and semantic overlap) at the initial and final measurement points. The findings demonstrate the multifaceted developmental trajectories and complexities evident in L2 learners’ approaches and carry important implications for L2 writing instruction and assessment.

Mapping metacognitive genre awareness with L1 and L2 writers: Investigating novices’ engagement with an occluded genre

This study examines L1 and L2 English-speaking undergraduates’ engagement with an occluded, promotional genre – the personal statement (PS). Using a case study design, the researchers explored the experiences of three novice writers with no prior exposure to PSs, as the students applied to a university-sponsored grants competition that required them to produce the genre. Drawing upon metacognition theory, the researchers investigated (1) students’ metacognitive genre awareness of the PS prior to composing, along with (2) the challenges that students faced when attempting to compose the genre for the first time. Special attention is paid to comparing the similarities/differences among the L1 and L2 writers. Data for the study included semi-structured interviews, multimodal visualizations, and stimulated recalls. The findings show shared areas of metacognitive genre awareness among the case study participants, in addition to multiple differences between L1 and L2 writers. Despite such differences, all students struggled with aspects of procedural knowledge when composing the occluded genre, encountering similar challenges. Implications are discussed for writing researchers and practitioners, including the potential of multimodal visualizations as a tool for tapping into learners’ metacognition and genre awareness.

Making sense of L2 written argumentation with keystroke logging

This study examines associations between writing behaviors manifested by keystroke analytics and the formulation of argument elements in L2 undergraduate writers' writing processes. Ninety-nine persuasive essays written by L2 undergraduate writers were human annotated for Toulmin argument elements. The corresponding keystroke logs were segmented and analyzed to characterize the dynamics of writing processes for different categories of the elements. A multinomial mixed-effects logistic regression model was built to predict argument categories using the keystroke analytics. The study reported that L2 undergraduate writers' text production for final claims and primary claims featured P-bursts (execution processes delimited by pauses exceeding 2 seconds) of longer spans but lower production fluency compared to that for data. In addition, fewer revisions were observed when L2 writers were constructing final claims than when they were formulating data. These findings shed light on the varying cognitive loads and activities L2 undergraduate writers may experience when building different argument elements in written argumentation.