L2 Willingness Research Articles

Scale quality in second-language anxiety and WTC: A methodological synthesis

AbstractAs survey research in second language acquisition grows in popularity, the adherence to best practices associated with questionnaire quality is critical for a better understanding of factors that influence second language (L2) development. To ensure that a self-report scale targets the construct of interest and does it consistently and accurately, authors of primary research should demonstrate that their instrument possesses acceptable evidence of validity and reliability. To this end, this methodological synthesis focused on the state of scale quality in L2 anxiety and willingness to communicate (WTC) research by examining key methodological issues of quantitative survey research and offering empirically grounded suggestions for future studies. A close examination of 232 peer-reviewed articles that used 385 L2 anxiety and WTC scales demonstrated, among other findings, the lack of evidence for scale content and construct validity. The implications of this study contribute to concurrent attempts at methodological reform in applied linguistics.

Impostor Phenomenon and L2 willingness to communicate: Testing communication anxiety and perceived L2 competence as mediators.

The Impostor Phenomenon (IP) describes experiences of perceived intellectual fraudulence despite the existence of objectively good performances, and it is a robust predictor of experiences and outcomes in higher education. We examined the role of the IP in the domain of second language (L2) acquisition by testing its relations with a robust predictor of L2 use, willingness to communicate (WTC). We collected self-reports of 400 adult Iranian L2 learners and tested the associations between the IP and WTC. As expected, we found a negative association between IP and WTC (r = -0.13). When testing a mediation model with perceived competence and communication anxiety as parallel mediators, we found evidence for full mediation via perceived competence. Our findings show the importance of considering self-evaluations in the domain of L2 acquisition. Further implications and limitations are discussed.

ESQ in L2 Willingness to Communicate and Communicative Ability

ndividuals are not always willing to communicate in L2 due to different factors. Given the essential role of effective communication in all aspects of life and the vital role of communicative ability in successful communication, this study investigated the role of emo-sensory intelligence (ESQ) in L2 willingness to communicate (L2WTC) and the communicative ability (COA) of Iranian EFL learners. Towards this end, 220 EFL learners took the ESQ and L2WTC scales. Moreover, their last language achievement scores were regarded for the assessment of their COA. The results of the correlational analyses showed that all the sub-constructs of ESQ are significantly correlated with the sub-constructs of L2WTC. Moreover, a significant relationship was found between COA and ESQ''s visual and auditory sub-constructs. There was also a positive correlation between COA and all the sub-constructs of L2WTC. Furthermore, structural equation modeling (SEM) results revealed that while ESQ does not directly predict the students’ COA, mediated by L2WTC, it is a positive predictor of COA. These findings suggest that improving ESQ can positively affect L2 WTC, leading to improved communicative ability in Iranian EFL learners.

Communication Apprehension, Privacy Preferences and L2 Willingness to Communicate: Can They Predict Communication Ability?

Being able to communicate can play an important role in achieving the desired goals in today’s world. This study investigated the interrelationships between communication apprehension (CA), privacy preferences (Pr), L2 WTC, and foreign language achievement (FLA) of learners as an indicator of their communication ability. Besides, the differences between males and females regarding these variables were examined. To this end, we administered three questionnaires to 250 English learners. Pearson’s correlation, t-test, and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were employed to analyze the data. The findings revealed that CA has a significant negative relationship with FLA. Considering Pr, FLA had a significant negative relationship with Anonymity. WTC and its subscales demonstrated a significant positive association with FLA. The results of the SEM denoted that CA is a negative predictor of L2 WTC, and FLA; L2 WTC positively predicted FLA; and privacy preferences neither predicted L2 WTC nor FLA. Regarding gender, the results indicated that males had a higher level of preference for Intimacy with Friends, WTW, and WTC.

An Investigation into the Relationship between Learners’ Emotional Intelligence and Willingness to Communicate in terms of gender in the Turkish EFL Classroom

Emotional intelligence is effective in foreign language learning as well as in all areas of life. For this reason, this study was carried out to examine the relationship between the willingness to communicate and emotional intelligence of 120 students at the English Preparatory School of a foundation university in terms of gender. The Bar-On Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Bar-On, 2003) and the L2 Willingness to Communicate Scale (MacIntyre, et al., 2001) were used to collect data in the study. Statistical Package Software for Social Sciences (SPSS v.22) was utilized for data analysis, and independent sample t-tests and Pearson Correlation Analysis were used. According to the results, it was analyzed that female students outscored males in interpersonal skills and the subscales except willingness to speak in L2 differed between genders. According to the correlation analysis, although there was no negative correlation between any of the subscales of female students' emotional intelligence and willingness to communicate in a foreign language, (1) willingness to communicate and general mood, (2) willingness to speak and adaptability, (3) willingness to write and general mood, (4) a positive significant relationship was found between willingness to grasp and general mood. In terms of early learners, there was a negative correlation between (1) willingness to communicate and intrapersonal intelligence, (2) willingness to read and interpersonal intelligence, (3) willingness to write and EQ/interpersonal intelligence. In addition, positive correlations were found between several different subscales.

The Effects of Pronunciation Anxiety and Motivation on English Learners’ Willingness to Communicate

The present quantitative study intended to investigate the effect of Iranian EFL learners' pronunciation anxiety (PA) and pronunciation motivation (PM) on their L2 willingness to communicate (L2 WTC) in English classes. Additionally, it aimed at identifying which of these two independent variables (PA or PM) could better predict their L2 WTC. To these aims, a convenient sample of 134 upper-intermediate EFL learners were recruited from two private language institutes in one of the large cities of Iran. Their proficiency level had already been determined by the institutes using written and oral placement tests. To gather the necessary data, three questionnaires, namely, Baran-Lucarz's (2017) PA, and PM, and Simić’s (2014) WTC questionnaires were used. Descriptive and inferential statistics were utilized to answer the research question of the study. Findings indicated that both variables under study, PA and PM, had significant correlations with learners’ L2 WTC. However, although results suggested that both independent variables predicted the learners' L2 WTC, PA was found to be a stronger predictor. Implications of the study findings and suggestions for further research are also offered.

The Role of Ideal L2 Self in Motivating Students to Verbally Communicate in L2 Speaking Classes

EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners' willingness to verbally communicate in language speaking classes remains an intriguing issue for many advanced learners. Many preparatory year students in Saudi Arabia exhibit low levels of willingness to communicate (WTC) in a second language (L2) classroom context, where English is used as a medium of instruction. This study aims to highlight the issue by investigating the Saudi female EFL preparatory year students' willingness to verbally communicate in L2 speaking classes, focusing on the Ideal L2 Self as a higher/ individual factor of the motivation self-system. The study used a quantitative method consisting of a questionnaire instrument to determine the correlation between the Ideal L2 Self and willingness to communicate. The questionnaire was electronically administered to 123 participants, and the data collected were analyzed statistically. The findings of the study show a significant moderated correlation between students' WTC and their Ideal L2 Self. Furthermore, the results reveal that relating the Ideal L2 Self to speaking classes positively affects students' willingness to communicate verbally in the Saudi context, especially if they recognize their Ideal L2 Self early. Therefore, the study attempts to offer an insight into the impact of the Ideal L2 Self in enhancing EFL students' willingness to verbally communicate using English in L2 speaking classes and construct a meaningful difference in teaching EFL speaking skills.

The impact of social phobia on willingness to communicate in a second language: The mediation effect of ideal L2 self.

In recent years, a greater focus has been placed on the influential power of domain-general psychological properties in second language acquisition and learning. The investigations of these properties, such as grit, academic procrastination and enjoyment etc. have been extensively conducted and are well-documented. Notwithstanding the surge of academic inquiry, the link between psychopathological notions and second language learning has not been adequately established and thoroughly scrutinized. The current study, therefore, aims to broaden the spectrum of second language research and explore the impact of social phobia on willingness to communicate in the second language context. Meanwhile, this research introduces the self-construct, particularly the ideal L2 self to further examine and elucidate the impact. 173 qualified Chinese speakers of L2 English participated in the study. By conducting correlation analysis, regression analysis and structural equation modelling analysis, it was revealed that social phobia had a significant negative impact on L2 willingness to communicate in social situations of meetings and public speaking. Ideal L2 self acted as a complete mediating role in the impact. Pedagogical implications and future directions were proposed and discussed.

The Relationship Between Chinese EFL Learners’ L2 Motivational Self System and Willingness to Communicate

This study explores the relationships between the L2 motivational self system (L2MSS)—Ideal self, Ought-to self, and Learning experience—and the willingness to communicate (WTC) based on the results of a questionnaire survey of 120 freshmen from English majors (English, Business English, Translation). The results demonstrate that: (1) in the L2MSS, the ideal self has the greatest mean of 3.83, and the WTC has a mean of 3.74. Overall, each value is in the upper-middle range. (2) The ideal self, the ought-to self, and the learning experience are positively correlated with the WTC in a significant way, among which the correlation coefficient of the learning experience is the largest one, being 0.593. (3) In the L2MSS, the ideal self and the learning experience can significantly predict the learners’ WTC. The study suggests that it may be more effective in motivating students’ WTC if teachers can guide students to establish a positive ideal self and build a good teacher-student relationship in the teaching process.

L2 motivation and willingness to communicate: a moderated mediation model of psychological shyness

Abstract Psychological factors involved in learning a second language (L2) present a considerable interest for applied linguistics researchers and language educators. This study adopted the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) framework to examine links between L2 motivation, willingness to communicate in the target language (L2WTC), classroom environment (L2CE) and psychological shyness of Chinese learners of English. The study posited that L2 motivation would be positively associated with L2WTC and that L2CE would mediate this relationship. It was further proposed that the L2MSS → L2CE → L2WTC nexus would be moderated by the language learners’ psychological shyness. Data were collected from 846 (N = 846) learners of English as a foreign language in three large state universities in China and analysed using rigorous statistical methods. The findings indicated that L2MSS was positively associated with L2WTC and that L2CE mediated the association between the two constructs. Furthermore, psychological shyness moderated the first and the second links in the L2MSS → L2CE → L2WTC nexus. These findings have notable pedagogical implications, such as the need to help students generate a positive self-image as an L2 user, to provide encouragement to the shy students and to create an inclusive and supportive classroom environment.

The idiodynamic method in individual differences research: a review of applications and contributions

ABSTRACT Over the past decade, the focus of investigation in individual differences (IDs) research has shifted from the utilization of large-scale questionnaire surveys toward the adoption of methodological diversity and development of new approaches to second-language (L2) communication (Dörnyei and Ryan [2015]. The Psychology of the Language Learner Revisited. New York: Routledge.). One innovative approach to researching complex dynamic systems (e.g. individual difference characteristics such as motivation) is the ‘idiodynamic method’, which is developed to capture moment-by-moment fluctuations during L2 communication tasks. This review aims to examine the contributions that the idiodynamic methodology can make to individual differences in L2 learning. Focusing on three prominent areas in ID research (L2 willingness to communicate, language motivation, and language learning anxiety), the review examined 32 idiodynamically-informed studies published in the last decade. The findings indicate that the idiodynamic method – as a powerful research tool – could potentially contribute to investigating the dynamics associated with learner-related and teacher-related factors. The idiodynamic method is found to (1) encourage a reinterpretation of IDs, modeling them in terms of different timescales and changes in real time; (2) recognize the trajectories involved in learning-teaching behaviors; (3) highlight the interaction of communication traits and co-existence of stability and variability in the L2 learning system; and (4) quantify the variability in the ratings and the variation in IDs in real time communication. The review confirms the practical value of the idiodynamic methodology in L2 research and concludes with a brief discussion of implications of the methodology and suggestions for future studies.

Clustering perceived learning environment as antecedents of willingness to communicate in a second language

This study was designed to explore patterns of student perceptions of second language (L2) classroom environments and the relationships between such perceptions and L2 willingness to communicate (WTC). A sample of 845 first-year undergraduate students of English as a foreign language (EFL) participated in the study and reported their perceptions of the L2 classroom environment and their WTC. Using cluster analysis, this study aggregated students’ perceptions of the classroom environment into four clusters: High support, Rapport, Input, and Low support classes. These four clusters of classes differed significantly in the student perceived support of interpersonal relationships and instructional input. A one-way ANOVA further showed that L2 WTC was positively related to student perceptions of interpersonal relationships and instructional input. More specifically, students’ positive perceptions of interpersonal relationships tended to facilitate WTC in meaning-focused activities, while students’ positive perceptions of instructional input tended to facilitate WTC in form-focused activities. This study finally proposed a model to depict perceived situation cues as antecedents (interpersonal relationship and instructional input) of L2 WTC. Implications for L2 instruction and learning were also discussed.

A Per-second Investigation of the Interconnectedness between Linguistic and Cognitive Factors Underlying L2 Willingness to Communicate

Willingness to communicate (WTC) research has recently witnessed a paradigm shift with the more recent studies looking at the shifting and dynamic nature of the variable. A growing body of literature has interpreted such dynamicity from a complex dynamic systems (CDS) perspective. The theory of CDS has four basic properties, one of which, and the focus of this study, is the interconnectedness among subsystems. This property mainly involves the interplay amongst parts of a system, which interact and influence one another, determining the subsequent dynamics in the system. This qualitative, exploratory study employed an idiodynamic method to investigate the interconnectedness of the cognitive and linguistic factors underlying second language (L2) WTC. To this end, 20 participants completed four three-minute monologic speaking tasks while being video-recorded. Immediately after, they viewed their recordings, rated their WTC moment by moment, and explained the WTC changes in stimulated recall interviews. The interviews were coded, and instances where WTC was affected by cognitive and linguistic factors were identified and analysed. Three patterns of interconnectedness emerged: (1) WTC and linguistic factors; (2) WTC and cognitive factors; and (3) WTC, and linguistic and cognitive factors. Findings provide a clearer account of the interconnectedness property in the WTC system, lending support to viewing WTC as a CDS. The article highlights the importance of self-perception and availability of content message, in addition to the above factors, and concludes with a brief discussion of the pedagogical implications for L2 classroom.

Unraveling Advanced EFL Learners’ L2 Willingness to Communicate in Extramural Digital Settings

Considering the importance of willingness to communicate (WTC) as a critical component of effective pedagogy (MacIntyre et al., 1998), the present qualitative study investigated the affordances extramural digital settings (EDSs), as newly emerged popular environments, offer to advanced EFL learners. To this aim, we asked a purposeful sample of 8 Iranian undergraduate English students of both genders (4 males, 4 females), with an age range of 19 to 21, to partake in the study. Results of the analysis of semi-structured interviews suggested that despite providing advanced EFL learners with unique opportunities for the use of the target language, different aspects of EDSs might have diverse effects on each individual''s L2 WTC. More specifically, L2 WTC was subject to considerable fluctuations because of the simultaneous and aggregate effect of different factors and the fluctuations exhibited substantial variation from learner to learner, moment to moment and in accordance with different purposes. The factors identified were classified into three major categories: Affective (attitude and self-confidence), contextual (interlocutor, social disapproval and cultural influences), and linguistic (language proficiency) variables. The findings of the study may offer insights into materials development by suggesting the integration of some activities and tasks which focus on the use of various social media platforms to the course materials. Moreover, English instructors need to acquire information on which social media platforms are more appropriate and could create an interesting and collaborative environment for students to communicate in the target language. For instance, they could form groups on social media to engage students in regular authentic interaction in L2 outside of the classroom context.

The Influence of Cognitive, Affective, and Sociocultural Individual Differences on L2 Chinese Speech Performance: A Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes Approach.

Informed by Segalowitz's (Cognitive bases of second language fluency, Routledge, 2010) L2 speech production model and MacIntyre et al.'s (Mod Lang J 82(4):545-562, 1998. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb05543.x ) L2 willingness to communicate model, this study sought to understand the influence of cognitive, affective and sociocultural individual differences on advanced learners' L2 Chinese speech performance. A total of 240 advanced L2 Chinese learners in China participated in the study. The participants' perceptions of the impact of cognitive, affective, and sociocultural factors on their L2 Chinese speech performance were measured by an adapted questionnaire. A speaking test, following the Hanyu Shuiping Kouyu Kaoshi (HSKK, an international standardized L2 Chinese speaking proficiency test for non-native speakers), was employed to evaluate the participants' L2 Chinese speech performance. The results of multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) analysis show that (1) cognitive factors such as cognitive fluency, expression practice strategy, and assistance strategy, (2) affective factors such as speaking self-efficacy, speaking anxiety, and speaking motivation, and (3) sociocultural factors such as attitudes toward target language class and attitudes toward target language culture jointly influence advanced L2 Chinese learners' speech performance. Results and implications of the present study are discussed for enhancinglearners' L2 Chinese speech performance.

Hungarian secondary school EFL teachers’ perceptions of their students’ individual differences: A validation study

Besides classroom-based EFL lessons, EFL learners have a plethora of opportunities to learn the language by engaging in out-of-school or in other words extramural English activities. As learners pursue these activities for entertainment purposes, extramural English activities may be closely associated with L2 learning motivation. In addition to motivation, several other individual learner differences, namely L2 anxiety and L2 willingness to communicate are also important in both the school-based and the extramural learning contexts, as motivating and stress-free environments may lead to a decrease in learners’ level of L2 anxiety and an increase in the level of their L2 willingness to communicate. Using the quantitative research paradigm, the present pilot study aimed to investigate Hungarian secondary school EFL teachers’ perceptions of their students’ individual learner differences as well as extramural EFL learning. The preliminary results show that participants demonstrate an overall positive attitude towards extramural EFL learning and considered their students to be relatively motivated to learn English, to be willing to speak English in EFL classes. Finally, participants’ responses also show that they do not perceive their students anxious in EFL classes.

EFL STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCES OF WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE IN EXTRAMURAL DIGITAL CONTEXT

This study investigate the positive relationship between extramural digital activities and EFL students’ willingness to communicate. Extramural digital context is learning English outside the classroom without teachers’ involvement. It encourages EFL students to feel more comfortable in L2 willingness to communicate. Furthermore, this research investigated students’ experiences and factors that may influence EFL students’ willingness to communicate towards extramural digital context using qualitative research, specifically case study as the research design. The researcher collected the data from six EFL students from several universities in Indonesia with four female and two male using semi-structured interview and questionnaires. The interviews data were analyzed by using thematic analysis and using descriptive statistics analysis for the questionnaires. The findings showed that the convenience of extramural digital context and students’ self-confidence indicate as the factors that influence students’ willingness to communicate using English. Additionally, based on students’ experiences of using extramural digital context, listening to music is considered as the most frequently used by students. This research contribute to gain deep understanding about L2 willingness to communicate and extramural digital context. In pedagogical insight, this research help English teacher to facilitate EFL students in extramural digital context to increase students’ willingness to communicate.

Analyzing the Correlation Between Ideal L2 Self and Willingness to Communicate in L2 among EFL Learners

This study aimed to investigate the learners’ levels of ideal L2 self and Willingness to Communicate (WTC) not only inside but also outside the EFL classrooms and the correlation between these two constructs. Thus, the research was designed as a qualitative study, and the correlational research design was implemented to seek answers to research questions. The participants were 61 EFL learners who studied at the preparatory school of a state university. The data collected by conducting the ideal L2 self scale and WTC survey for inside and outside the classroom were analyzed through descriptive statistics, and Pearson correlation test after the normality of the data was ensured. The findings showed that the vast majority of learners had moderate levels of ideal L2 self and WTC, and a small minority reported low levels of WTC and ideal L2 self. Besides, the findings pointed out that WTC and ideal L2 self are correlated with a statistically significant relationship in a positive manner. The study first discusses the contradictory and concurrent findings with respect to previous studies conducted in different contexts like Japan, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Iran and Turkey, then concludes with recommendations for teachers and further research.

Informal digital learning of English and L2 willingness to communicate: roles of emotions, gender, and educational stage

ABSTRACT This study was conducted with two goals in mind: (1) to explore the mediating roles of L2 enjoyment as a positive emotion and L2 anxiety as a negative emotion in the relationship between Informal Digital Learning of English (IDLE) and L2 willingness to communicate (L2 WTC) in an exam-oriented EFL context, and (2) to further examine whether gender and educational stage play any role in these relationships. Participants include 1,265 Korean EFL learners (764 secondary and 501 tertiary students; 400 males and 865 females). Moderated mediation structural equation modelling results found: (1) L2 enjoyment and L2 anxiety partially mediated the relationship between IDLE and L2 WTC. L2 enjoyment was a stronger mediator than L2 anxiety; (2) IDLE affected females more than males in terms of reducing their L2 anxiety; (3) L2 emotions played a similar mediation role for secondary and tertiary students. These findings advance our understanding of how emotions mediate the association between IDLE and L2 WTC in relation to individual and contextual differences.

Ideal L2 self and willingness to communicate: A moderated mediation model of shyness and grit

The aim of this study is to deepen our understanding of psychological processes involved in learning an additional language, particularly the associations between ideal L2 self and L2 willingness to communicate (L2 WTC). For this purpose, a moderated mediation model is proposed that incorporates grit and psychological shyness. Drawing on the L2 Motivational Self System framework, this study proposes that ideal L2 self would be positively related to L2 WTC and that grit would mediate the association between the two constructs. We also posit that this mediated association would be moderated by psychological shyness. The data for this multi-university study were collected across three cities in China from 842 (N = 842) undergraduate students majoring in Business English and English for Educational Purposes. Robust analytical techniques were employed to analyze the data. The findings suggested that ideal L2 self was positively related to L2 WTC and that grit mediated the relationship between these two constructs. Additionally, the link between ideal L2 self and grit was found to be moderated by psychological shyness. Furthermore, the strength of this mediated effect increased alongside the level of shyness. These findings hold some notable pedagogical implications.