L2 Texts Research Articles

The language of dubbing and its comprehension by learner-viewers. A resource for second language acquisition?

Recent research on L2 acquisition has been stressing the potential of audiovisual translation as a tool for boosting foreign language competence. Whereas most studies have concentrated on subtitled input, less attention has been devoted to dubbing, which is nevertheless the main audiovisual translation modality in several countries. Being the outcome of a translation process, dubbed dialogue is subject to translation universals, including simplification, explicitation and standardisation. These strategies may contribute to the greater accessibility of dubbed vis-à-vis original, non-translated products to non-native viewers. With a view to exploring the role of dubbing in ultimately fostering second language acquisition, an empirical study on the comprehension of different types of audiovisual input by learner-viewers was designed. The study moves from the assumption that input comprehension is a necessary prerequisite for acquisition proper and compares the degree of comprehension of dubbed vs. non-translated film scenes among intermediate-level learners of L2 Italian. Quantitatively and qualitatively comparable film scenes were selected and dialogue comprehension was assessed through closed and timed questions administered after exposure to each scene. Findings show that dubbed audiovisual input results in better comprehension than non-translated film dialogue independently of viewers’ L1 and audiovisual texts’ individual features. The study thus paves the way for further research on the acquisitional impact of dubbed dialogue, especially among learners at lower proficiency levels.

Speech Intelligibility of Korean EFL Learners : Role of Proficiency, Text Type and Text Length

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether and to what extent the intelligibility of Korean EFL learners’ speech at the text level is affected by their English proficiency, text type, and text length. Various speech materials produced by native English speakers and two Korean EFL speaker groups (high vs. low proficiency) were presented to native English listeners and two Korean EFL listener groups, respectively, for comparison of intelligibility scores. The results showed that the listeners’ overall proficiency played the most critical role in determining the level of speech intelligibility for all speaker groups, regardless of the type and length of speech materials. The speakers’ proficiency level in terms of pronunciation, however, had no significant effect. As for the text type, dialogue texts were consistently more intelligible than monologues to all listener groups while the effect of text length varied depending on the text type. These results suggest that L2 learners’ speech intelligibility needs to be examined within the context of natural L2 text beyond word- and sentence-level utterances in consideration of the interaction of text-related features and other learner variables. Some pedagogical implications are also discussed.

Comparing Patterns of Error in Generation 1.5, L1, and L2 First-Year Composition Writing

The purpose of the current study is to determine whether language use patterns in early arrival Generation 1.5 writing more closely resemble the patterns demonstrated by L1 or L2 writers, or perhaps demonstrated patterns unlike either of the two groups. Writing samples were obtained at a South Texas 4-year public institution from First-Year Composition (FYC) classes, and essays were separated into 3 student groups for further analysis: early arrival Generation 1.5 (n=133), L1 (n=94), and L2 (n=48) writing. Holistic writing quality and 11 error variables were compared across the 3 groups. Results indicate no significant holistic quality differences between early arrival Generation 1.5 writing and either L1 or L2 writing. In terms of error variables, no significant differences were found between early arrival Generation 1.5 and L1 writing; however, 9 of the 11 error variables demonstrated significantly lower rates of errors in early arrival Generation 1.5 writing when compared to L2 texts, with the same 9 error variables significantly lower in L1 writing compared to L2 writing. Implications are discussed generally as they relate to defining Generation 1.5 writers. Finally, following Roberge, Losey, and Wald (2015) and di Gennaro (2015), a shift away from the term Generation 1.5 is proposed.

Exploring collaboratively written L2 texts among first-year learners of German in Google Docs

Grounded in research on collaborative writing and computer-mediated writing the present study examines the computer-mediated collaborative writing process among first-year learners of German as a second language (L2) at a US university. The data come from 28 first-year learners of German at a US university, who wrote hypothesized endings to a German feature-film in small groups in Google Docs. The results suggest an expansion of previous models of collaborative writing – based on participatory patterns along the axes of equality and mutuality – to reflect the nature of computer-supported collaboration. The results also confirm previous findings that during computer-supported collaborative writing, learners tend to prioritize meaning over form, however, in this project, participants were able to attend to both, in spite of their level of proficiency. Implications for further research and L2 pedagogy are explored after the discussion of the data.

Effects of Working Memory and Gloss Type on L2 Text Comprehension and Incidental Vocabulary Learning in Computer-Based Reading

Abstract Current computer technologies can provide resources for the reader to employ both lexical and topic-level knowledge through glosses. As the reader is engaged in processing the text, s/he can easily access definitions of words or get more information about the topic through hyperlinks. However, there is little consensus regarding the effects of these resources especially on reading comprehension. Given the role of working memory (WM) in reading comprehension, the effects of these text resources may be mediated by WM capacity. As such, the current study, through a between groups experimental design, aims to compare the performance of low-knowledge readers on vocabulary and recall measures when they are exposed to glosses providing lexical information versus topic-level information. It also aims to examine whether WM mediates the effects of gloss content. Upon determining the participants⿿ WM capacity through a backward digit span task, they were randomly assigned to one of the experimental groups, which were exposed to an expository text with either vocabulary glosses or topic-level glosses or to the control group which received no glosses. After reading the text, the participants were given recall and vocabulary measures. Findings yield a significant relationship between WM and reading comprehension regardless of treatment condition and immediate positive effects of glosses on incidental vocabulary learning.

Could a multimodal dictionary serve as a learning tool? An examination of the impact of technologically enhanced visual glosses on L2 text comprehension

This study examines the efficacy of a multimodal online bilingual dictionary based on cognitive linguistics in order to explore the advantages and limitations of explicit multimodal L2 vocabulary learning. Previous studies have examined the efficacy of the verbal and visual representation of words while reading L2 texts, concluding that it facilitates incidental word retention. This study explores other potentials of multimodal L2 vocabulary learning: explicit learning with a multimodal dictionary could enhance not only word retention, but also text comprehension; the dictionary could serve not only as a reference tool, but also as a learning tool; and technology-enhanced visual glosses could facilitate deeper text comprehension. To verify these claims, this study investigates the multimodal representations’ effects on Japanese students learning L2 locative prepositions by developing two online dictionaries, one with static pictures and one with animations. The findings show the advantage of such dictionaries in explicit learning; however, no significant differences are found between the two types of visual glosses, either in the vocabulary or in the listening tests. This study confirms the effectiveness of multimodal L2 materials, but also emphasizes the need for further research into making the technologically enhanced materials more effective.

Morphological complexity in written L2 texts

Morphological complexity (MC) is a relatively new construct in second language acquisition (SLA). After critically discussing existing approaches to calculating MC in first- and second-language acquisition research, this article presents a new operationalization of the construct, the Morphological Complexity Index (MCI). The MCI is applied in two case studies based on argumentative written texts produced by native and non-native speakers of Italian and English. Study 1 shows that morphological complexity varies between native and non-native speakers of Italian, and that it is significantly lower in learners with lower proficiency levels. The MCI is strongly correlated to proficiency, measured with a C-test, and also shows significant correlations with other measures of linguistic complexity, such as lexical diversity and sentence length. Quite a different picture emerges from Study 2, on advanced English learners. Here, morphological complexity remains constant across natives and non-natives, and is not significantly correlated to other text complexity measures. These results point to the fact that morphological complexity in texts is a function of speakers’ proficiency and the specific language under investigation; for some linguistic systems with a relatively simple inflectional morphology, such as English, learners will soon reach a threshold level after which inflectional diversity remains constant.

The Present Perfect in Written L2 English

This study examines the distribution of the present perfect (the PP) in written essays of Korean university students. A part of the Yonsei English Learner Corpus (Lee & Chung, 2012) was analyzed focusing on the interaction of L2 proficiency and text types with the use of the PP. The main findings are as follows: 1) The learners’ use of the PP was not as frequent as NS usage, but was comparable to that of NS and NNS university students reported in previous studies. 2) The error patterns revealed that the confusion between the PP and the simple past was a common source of errors both for the high and low levels. Mismatches between temporal adverbials and the PP also led to ungrammatical sentences. 3) The association between the PP and lexical aspects was not evidenced in our data, contrary to the prediction of the Aspect Hypothesis. Considering the difficulty of grasping fluid pragmatic meanings of the PP and the time constraint in L2 classroom, a more realistic goal is suggested for the instruction of the PP.

Use of Metadiscourse in L1 and L2 Student Newspapers: Interactional Features of Argumentation in Editorials

This paper aims to investigate the effect of cultural factors and genre-specific conventions on the use of interactional metadiscourse within a journalistic genre. In doing so, a contrastive rhetoric research has been conducted to examine two different sub-corpora: a corpus of100 student newspaper editorials obtained from 10 Korean universities and from 7 UK universities, respectively, both written in English. Based on Hyland’s model (2005), interactional met discourse markers were analysed. The results showed that interactional metadiscourse markers are present in both L1 and L2 texts, but that there are variations in regard to the distribution and rhetorical use of such markers, specifically, in the case of engagement markers and self-mentions. A higher frequency of engagement markers and lower frequency of hedges in L2are unexpectedly noticeable and the functions of rhetorical questions between two corpora are different. This all yields an insight into howL2 writers project themselves into their written discourse to render the text more reader-oriented in attaining rhetorical persuasion in newspaper editorials. Pedagogical L2 writing resources should be given to teach Korean L2 writers alternative strategies for both genre-specific and culture-specific devices that are frequently used in newspaper editorials.

Adverbs in a Learner Corpus: Focusing on Predicational Adverbs

This paper examines the behavior of predicational adverbs in a learner corpus of English, focusing on an overall distributional pattern, the correlation between adverbial meaning and position, and common error types. Two types of essays (argumentative and narrative) produced by university freshmen at two proficiency levels (beginner and high-intermediate) were selected for analysis from the one-million word Yonsei English Learner Corpus (YELC). Notable findings from the analysis include the following: 1) The high level learner corpus, and the argumentative writings within the same level, contained more predicational adverbs, both in diversity and frequency, demonstrating the role of L2 proficiency and text type in the fluency with which the learners employed predicational adverbs. 2) Knowledge of scopal distinction began to emerge, i.e. the distinction between VP-level and S-level adverbs or between speech acts and evaluative adverbs. 3) Errors involving lexical selection were more common than word order errors, corroborating the observation in previous research that lexico-semantic learning trails behind syntactic learning. Considering both the crucial role of adverbial modification as a key to nuance in communication and the difficulty of acquiring lexical selection, it is recommended that more emphasis be given to the lexico-semantic aspects of adverbs in the L2 classroom.

Untangling Multimedia Effects on EFL Incidental Vocabulary Learning via Playing an Online Hidden-Object Game

The present empirical study examined the efficacy of coupling L1 or L2 definitions with pictorial glosses on incidental vocabulary learning when L2 learners exclusively play a purposely designed hidden-object game. Elementary EFL learners (n= 162) took a vocabulary pretest and a picture recognition test (PRT) and a word recognition test (WRT) immediately after playing the game, and again two weeks later. ANOVA analyses were conducted to measure vocabulary acquisition and retention. The findings revealed that the L1 text + picture gloss group did significantly better than the other two groups in the immediate acquisition of vocabulary. Concerning vocabulary retention, the two vocabulary measurements yielded different outcomes. In PRT, the L1 text + picture gloss group kept the highest retention rate, whereas in WRT, the L2 text + picture group did better than the other groups. This study suggests that assessment methods may yield different outcomes in multimedia vocabulary learning studies.

The Effects of Visual and Aural Input Enhancement for Korean High School EFL Learners

This study compared the two modes of input enhancement, visual and aural, for L2 text comprehension and L2 acquisition. Input enhancement was proposed to overcome L2 learners’ limited attentional capacity for processing language form due to the primacy of meaning by expanding learners’ attention to form of the language. However, in the previous studies, the limited capacity was evidenced in aural mode whereas the effect of input enhancement was examined in written mode. The present study set the modality of input as an independent variable and examined its effect on learning the target form, English future perfect tense. Immediate posttest results from the fifty-five Korean high school students showed that visual input modality was significantly more beneficial than the aural. This between-group difference was not observed in the delayed posttest, though both conditions resulted in improvements in both posttests, in contrast to the test-only control, without inhibiting their text comprehension. The results are interpreted to mean that the enhancement in the aural mode potentially leads to longer-term learning because more attention to form is required in the aural mode in order to hold it in learners’ working memories due to the time pressed processing.

Suppression and Working Memory in Auditory Comprehension of L2 Narratives: Evidence from Cross-Modal Priming.

Using a cross-modal priming task, the present study explores whether Chinese-English bilinguals process goal related information during auditory comprehension of English narratives like native speakers. Results indicate that English native speakers adopted both mechanisms of suppression and enhancement to modulate the activation of goals and keep track of the "causal path" in narrative events and that L1 speakers with higher working memory (WM) capacity are more skilled at attenuating interference. L2 speakers, however, experienced the phenomenon of "facilitation-without-inhibition." Their difficulty in suppressing irrelevant information was related to their performance in the test of working memory capacity. For the L2 group with greater working memory capacity, the effects of both enhancement and suppression were found. These findings are discussed in light of a landscape model of L2 text comprehension which highlights the need for WM to be incorporated into comprehensive models of L2 processing as well as theories of SLA.

Exploring senior high school students’ difficulties and strategies for reading l1 and l2 texts in taiwan

This study is an attempt to explore proficient Taiwanese senior high school students’ difficulties and strategies toward L1 (Chinese) and L 2 (English) Reading. A total of eight proficient students participated in this study. An in-depth face to face interview was adopted for data collection. Through the enthusiastic response of the students, we can gain an overall understanding of their reading difficulties and strategies toward Chinese and English reading. This study shows that there are some similarities and differences between Chinese and English reading perceptions. Based on the findings of this study, classroom teachers will be able to design more effective reading strategy curriculum and instruction geared to the students’ needs.

The Effect of Model Essays on Complexity and Fluency of L2 Learners’ Writing Performance

The present study aimed at finding out whether model essays have an impact on the development of complexity and fluency of L2 learners’ writing performance. In order to achieve this research aim, 25 students majoring various subjects were recruited from a university in Korea. The participants were asked to write argumentative essays and to underline on whatever they noticed while comparing their original texts with the model essays. The first and the last essays from each participant were selected, and different measures of complexity and fluency were employed in order to examine L2 writing improvement. The results showed that the model essays had an impact on the learners’ L2 writing performance in terms of syntactic complexity and fluency while no significant improvement occurred in lexical complexity. The findings indicate that while analysing model essays, L2 learners may be aware of various aspects of written language such as vocabulary and sentence structure. As being exposed to model essays as written feedback, learners may have more knowledge to create L2 texts through the process of noticing in L2 production.

Using Glosses for Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition

As EFL teachers we use reading comprehension as an aid for intentional and incidental vocabulary growth. However, many reading passages contain low frequency words causing our students to face with difficulties trying to comprehend L2 texts, and this can become a handicap in the process of vocabulary learning. Including glosses in reading texts is an effective strategy that helps students overcome this problem. The aim of the present study is to investigate how different types of gloss conditions affect SEEU students’ reading comprehension and incidental vocabulary learning. The participants were 120 students with two different proficiency levels. They were divided into three groups of 40 and assigned to read a text with highlighted low frequency words. One group had L1 glosses to consult the meaning of the words, one group had L2 glosses and the control group had no glosses. After reading their text under each research condition, participants were given a vocabulary test to identify how many target words they remembered. The results of the study indicated that in both levels the experimental groups outperformed the control groups. The low proficiency students especially benefited from the L1 glosses and high proficiency students were successful with both Gloss conditions.

The Role of Vocabulary Knowledge in Reading Comprehension: A Cross-Linguistic Study

The purpose of the present cross-linguistic study was to find out the role of vocabulary knowledge of the language of the text on reading comprehension performance when reading texts in that language. The study involved 10 participants who were students of English as a foreign language (EFL) in a Malaysian public high school selected using the random sampling. The instruments for the study were a set of reading comprehension test and a set of vocabulary test for the selected EFL grade-level reading text and a set of reading comprehension test and a set of vocabulary test for the selected grade-level reading text in the participants’ native language. The tests were administered on an individual basis. Each participant was allowed to read the EFL text without time limit but to do the tests without looking back at the text within a specified duration for the reading comprehension and vocabulary tests. The same procedures were conducted for reading comprehension test and vocabulary in context test for the first language (L1) or native language text. A brief interview was conducted immediately after the participants had completed the reading comprehension and vocabulary in context tests for the EFL and L1 texts. The participants’ vocabulary test and reading comprehension were scored and the test scores for the EFL text and L1 text were compared. The findings show that the participants’ vocabulary test and reading comprehension test scores for the L1 text were significantly better than their scores for the EFL text. The results from the interviews indicate that the participants were lacked of vocabulary knowledge in the EFL in comparison to in their native language. The findings provide evidence that a reader's level of vocabulary knowledge is one of the elements that plays an impacting role in determining reading comprehension performance in that language.

Argumentation Text Construction by Japanese as a Foreign Language Writers: A Dynamic View of Transfer

This study takes a dynamic view of transfer as reusing and reshaping previous knowledge in new writing contexts to investigate how novice Japanese as a foreign language (JFL) writers draw on knowledge across languages to construct L1 and L2 texts. We analyzed L1 English and L2 Japanese argumentation essays by the same JFL writers (N = 19) and L1 Japanese essays by Japanese university students (N = 21), along with JFL writers’ reported reflections. The analysis identified both shared and contrasting L1/L2 text features, including argumentation subtypes (e.g., justification, exploration) and essay introduction/conclusion components. The findings revealed that while constructing L2 essays, the JFL writers took an active role in assessing audience, selecting appropriate text features, and transforming/reshaping selected features, influenced by contextual factors (e.g., audience expectation, purpose, topic). For example, some writers reshaped their L1 justification subtype by softening L2 assertions to meet perceived Japanese reader expectations. Results highlight the centrality of the writer's agency in deciding what previous writing knowledge to reuse or reshape when creating L2 text and also the importance of individual learning trajectories (e.g., L2 proficiency, L1/L2 writing experience) affecting writers’ decisions. The study affirms that a dynamic view of transfer provides insights into the L2 writers’ text construction process.

Leveling L2 Texts Through Readability: Combining Multilevel Linguistic Features with the CEFR

Selecting appropriate texts for L2 (second/foreign language) learners is an important approach to enhancing motivation and, by extension, learning. There is currently no tool for classifying foreign language texts according to a language proficiency framework, which makes it difficult for students and educators to determine the precise difficulty/complexity levels of an unclassified text. Taking the Chinese language as an example, this study aimed to create a readability assessment system, called the Chinese Readability Index Explorer for Chinese as a Foreign Language (CRIE–CFL), in order to level—that is, to sort by proficiency level—texts that will be used for instructional purposes. The framework of choice in this project is the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). A team of expert CFL teachers first classified 1,578 CFL texts into their appropriate CEFR levels. A set of 30 CFL readability features was then developed or drawn from previous research, and sorted according to importance using F‐scores. In addition, a support vector machine model was trained by sequentially integrating the features into the model to optimize accuracy. The empirical evaluation of CRIE–CFL revealed average exact‐ and adjacent‐level accuracies of 74.97% and 99.62%, respectively, for predicting the expert classification of a text. The functionalities of CRIE–CFL are introduced and discussed.

The Role of L1 in Reading Different Levels of L2 texts

The Role of L1 in Reading Different Levels of L2 texts