L2 Performance Research Articles

Developing advanced L2 German writing: A functionally oriented longitudinal study

AbstractCompetent L2 writing has been described in research in terms of an increasing incidence, variety, and length of clauses; a countervailing compactness and tightness with reduced number of clauses even as clause length expands; and various interrelationships between syntactic realizations of texts and the genres they represent. These partly contradictory features are typically related to the fact that “advancedness” is both a notoriously vague term and a developmental stage that is more expansive than are introductory and intermediate levels of L2 performance. To contribute to a more differentiated understanding of advancedness—particularly its gradual development in instructed settings—this article examines the characteristics of advanced writing through an analysis of data that are (a) longitudinal, rather than cross‐sectional, (b) embedded in an instructional environment that has implemented principled, articulated curricular, and pedagogical practices for the development of advancedness, and (c) analyzed within a systemic–functional linguistic framework in order to focus on the notions of experiential and logical meaning. By analyzing the intraclausal and interclausal resources that evolving advanced learners use and by relating them to the learners’ developmental trajectory, this article contributes to a better understanding not only of the nature of advancedness but also of its development by adult instructed learners.

Towards a classification of text features highly indicative of context-appropriate L2 writing competence

The quality of written L2 performance is mirrored in the interplay between different text features potentially revelatory of the underlying competence. Such features may include vocabulary, grammar, cohesion, content, length, task realization, and more. The features appearing in such a form/use whereby they may be indicative of incomplete L2 acquisition, relative to the operating expectations, are commonly termed errors. Coding texts for errors, as context-inappropriate text features, has been a staple of applied linguistics for decades. The features indicating expected L2 acquisition having taken place (i.e., diametrically opposite to errors in terms of what they represent) do not have such a well-established conceptual or terminological equivalent nor a tradition of being marked in performances. In fact, there are no readily available classifications for systematically coding such context-appropriate text features when performed. To address this gap, the paper puts forward an intuitive approach to detecting and classifying L2 feedback-triggering text features exemplary of context-appropriate writing performance, termed here assessment-positives (mirroring errors as assessment-negatives). The paper then goes on to discuss the practical usefulness of the proposed coding method.

Frequent native language use supports phonemic and semantic verbal fluency in L1 and L2: An extended analysis of verbal fluency task performance in an L1 language attrition population

Purpose: Verbal fluency (VF) tasks are an efficient tool for exploring lexical retrieval. Attriters generally produce fewer words in semantic categories than monolinguals, but the processes underlying attriters’ lexical retrieval remain unclear. Phonemic tasks are scarcely applied in language attrition studies. We aim to identify processes underlying attriters’ phonemic verbal fluency (PVF) and semantic verbal fluency (SVF) performance by extending the analysis beyond total scores in the first (L1) and second (L2) language. Design: We modeled total scores and temporal aspects of task performance in L1 and L2 for the attriters, with L1 use and length of residence (LoR) as predictors. We analyzed the number and types of errors between languages and compared L1 task performance with a matched monolingual group. Data and analysis: Attriters’ ( N = 38) phonemic and semantic task performance in L1 (Finnish) and L2 (English) were modeled, and results were contrasted to a matched monolingual control group ( N = 50). Findings: Attriters demonstrated strong proficiency in L1 and similar lexical retrieval processes in L1 and L2 after 20 years of immersive L2 exposure. Frequent L1 use supported overall performance but slowed performance down in both languages. Compared with monolinguals, attriters show a disadvantage in SVF, but not due to slower initiation. Instead, attriters rely more on rapid L1 retrieval than monolinguals. Originality: Prior research on VF tasks in language attrition populations has mainly focused on SVF total scores in L1. Our investigation explores underlying mechanisms of L1 and L2 task performance in PVF and SVF within a language attrition population and contrasts L1 performance to a matched monolingual group performance. Implications: This study demonstrates the importance of investigating L2 alongside L1 in language attrition studies for a holistic approach to language processing strategies. Our findings enhance understanding of the processes underlying VF task performance, emphasizing the significance of VF task early-stage performance.

The processing of gender agreement during reading comprehension in L2 French: The effects of syntactic complexity and working memory

A longstanding debate in L2 research focuses on how syntactic complexity needs to be operationalized to account for L2 performances. Whereas many studies investigated this issue in L2 production, very few studies focused on L2 sentence processing. The present study aimed at investigating the effect of syntactic complexity on gender agreement processing in L2 French, while controlling for the learners’ working memory capacity. We tested 37 Dutch learners of French by means of a self-paced reading technique. The results showed decreased sensitivity to gender agreement in embedded structures, but increased sensitivity to gender agreement in non-embedded structures. We concluded that the number of clauses in gender agreement constructions accounts for the effect of syntactic complexity on gender agreement processing in L2 French and that this measure is negatively correlated to sensitivity to gender agreement. We furthermore concluded that (non-verbal) working memory does not affect L2 gender agreement processing.

Evaluating the utility of elicited imitation as a measure of listening comprehension in the context of forensic linguistics

The Miranda rights guard against self-incrimination and guarantee access to legal counsel (Miranda v. Arizona, 1966). Individuals may waive these rights if they do so knowingly, and this requires them to comprehend their rights. Many L1 English speakers do not adequately understand the Miranda warning, and the situation is even worse for L2 speakers (e.g., Pavlenko, Hepford, Jarvis, 2019). Research is needed to assess Miranda comprehension among vulnerable populations and to develop and validate instruments that are both accurate and efficient measures of Miranda rights comprehension. The Guidelines for Communication of Rights to Non-Native Speakers of English (CoRG, 2015) emphasize the importance of assessing Miranda comprehension by having individuals paraphrase the Miranda sentences. Yet, Pavlenko et al. (2019) found that verbatim sentence repetition produces similar results to paraphrasing. The present study further explores this finding by comparing L2 performance on the oral equivalents of the types of written tasks used by Pavlenko et al.: elicited imitation (EI) and oral paraphrasing (OP). The purpose of the study is to determine whether EI can substitute for OP as a test of listening comprehension. Forty-two L2 English and eight L1 English participants completed both an EI and an OP test consisting of the same 30 sentences (see Ortega et al., 2002). The results showed a high correlation (r >.90) between the two measures, suggesting that both tests measure the same construct. Drawing on these findings, we discuss the advantages of EI over OP as a measure of listening comprehension and Miranda competency.

The cognate facilitation effect on lexical access in bilingual aphasia: Evidence from the Boston Naming Test.

Most cognate research suggests facilitation effects in picture naming, but how these effects manifest in bilinguals after brain damage remains unclear. Additionally, whether this effect is captured in clinical measures is largely unknown. Using data from the Boston Naming Test, we examined the naming of cognates and noncognates, the extent of cognate facilitation produced, and the individual differences in bilingual language experience associated with naming outcomes in forty Spanish-English bilingual persons with aphasia (BPWA) relative to thirty-one Spanish-English healthy bilinguals (HB). Results suggest that naming performance in L1 and L2 in both groups is modulated by lexical frequency, bilingual language experience, and by language impairment in BPWA. Although the two groups showed similarities, they deviated in benefit drawn from the extent of phoneme/grapheme overlap in cognate items. HB showed an association between cognate facilitation and bilingual language experience, while cognate facilitation in BPWA was only associated with L2 language impairment.

A Study of Critical Thinking Ability in Relation to Learning Styles of EFL Learners

This study aims to fill the gap by exploring critical thinking ability in relation to the key learning styles for language learning: field independence, left-brain dominance, ambiguity tolerance, reflectivity/impulsivity, and visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. To do this, students performed the critical thinking process according to the specific syllabus, and the questionnaires for WGCTT (Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Test) and LSA (LSA) were distributed. The data were collected from 127 EFL students to identify their learning styles and critical thinking ability. In this study, while analyzing the questionnaire of the WGCTT and LSA, hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to verify the influence of independent variables on changes in dependent variables. According to the results, some components of critical thinking ability were positively related to left-brain dominance, ambiguity tolerance, and reflectivity, while others were negatively associated with some elements of critical thinking ability. The positive relationship between critical thinking and learning styles could imply that some learning style patterns could change with adopting the critical thinking ability in the L2 performance.

The Development of Accuracy and Fluency in Second Language (L2) Speaking Related to Self-Efficacy Through Online Scaffolding: A Latent Growth Curve Modeling Analysis.

This longitudinal study made the first attempt to employ Latent Growth Curve Modeling to analyze the development of L2 speaking accuracy and fluency through online scaffolding as well as the dynamic relationship between L2 speaking performance and self-efficacy. From the perspective of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory, it tracked the development of 45 Chinese undergraduates' English-speaking accuracy, fluency, self-efficacy for accuracy (SEA) and self-efficacy for fluency (SEF) over one semester of online teaching (six observations). Results show that speaking accuracy, SEA and SEF all improved significantly, but speaking fluency did not; these four variables all developed in non-linear trajectories, and the greatest growth of accuracy, SEA and SEF all took place at Time 2; there existed significant individual differences in the initial levels of fluency, SEA and SEF, and in the change rates of SEA; a higher initial level of accuracy was related to a greater increase in SEA and a greater decrease in growth rates with time. These findings provide evidence for non-linearity, variability and inter-individual differences in the development of L2 speaking and self-efficacy through online scaffolding, and partly confirm the dynamic relations between self-efficacy and L2 performance. Pedagogical implications for online scaffolding are also discussed.

What explains children's digital word reading performance in L2?

Word reading fluency is crucial for early L2 development. Moreover, the practice of digital reading has become increasingly common for both children and adults. Therefore, the current study investigated factors that explain digital word reading fluency in English (L2) among Chinese children from Hong Kong. Eighty-six children (age: M = 9.78, SD = 1.42) participated in a digital silent word reading test using a mobile phone, a computer, or a tablet. This is a 10-minute timed test of English word reading. Overall, children's digital word reading fluency was highly correlated with print word reading fluency, even when measured a year apart. A hierarchical regression model revealed that socio-economic status ( β = .333), grade ( β = .455), and English reading motivation ( β = .375) were positively and uniquely associated with performance in digital reading. These predictors explained 48.6% of the total variance in task performance. Two additional variables, i.e., the type of reading device and extraneous cognitive load, were included as well. Digital word reading fluency was significantly poorer when done using a phone as compared to a computer ( β = -.187). No significant difference was found between reading on a tablet and a computer. Extraneous cognitive load ( β = -.255) negatively and uniquely explained digital word reading fluency as well. Overall, the model explained 58.8% of the total variance. The present study represents the first attempt to highlight a comprehensive set of predictors of digital word reading fluency.

Features of Behaviorism in Second Language Acquisition (SLA): An Empirical Excerpt from Applied Linguistics View

Three decades thereabouts when Skinner proposed his behaviorist theory in the context of L1 acquisition exploiting sociolinguistic approach specifically. Subsequently, there have been dearth of studies conducted validating the claims of behaviorism in the field of applied linguistics. Thus, RQ1 highlights the principles of behaviorism towards L2 competence with tantamount research assumption. Taking into account the data presented, it reveals that there practically are features of behaviorism which contributed to the successful L2 acquisition by the L2 learners. This involves reward, habit formation as well stimulus-response linguistic processes leading to the acceptance of the first assumption. Reward fosters positive attitude to further explore the unknown. It leads to an affirmative language attitude necessary to discover the full details of the L2 learning. RQ2 delineates the possible linguistic factors that are contributory to the collective L2 performance during the investigation time frame. Primary linguistic factors could have been the minimal L2 exposure of the students to the target language due to transition phase which forced the students to switch codes occasionally to complete the cycle of communication. This study is valuable to the learners and teachers of ESL/EFL worldwide as it offers some pedagogical implications necessary to understand the learning pace, lexical index, comprehensible input (CI), and language attitude of L2 learners. EFL teachers could likewise provide appropriate teaching materials and communicative activities to bring the students to a high level of competence by degrees.

What Sentence Repetition Tasks Can Reveal about the Processing Effort Associated with Different Types of Code-Switching

In this study, we explored the linguistic consolidation processes associated with bilingual processing using an experimental paradigm novel in bilingualism research, i.e., sentence repetition. We tested 46 L1-German L2-English bilinguals immersed in the L2 context. Firstly, we compared participants’ sentence repetition accuracy in single-language sentences and in sentences involving code-switches. Secondly, we investigated the processing cost associated with different types of code-switching, i.e., alternation, insertion, and dense code-switching. Finally, we assessed the following potential predictors of repetition accuracy: regular usage of different code-switching types, executive functions (working memory and inhibitory control), as well as relevant bilingualism variables (proficiency, dominance, and immersion). Our first finding was that bilinguals displayed reduced repetition accuracy in sentences involving code-switches compared to single-language sentences, but only when the single-language sentences were in the participants’ L1. This suggests that any processing costs associated with code-switching are modulated by bilinguals’ language background. Moreover, bilinguals’ poor performance in L2 compared to L1 single-language sentences, despite reporting high levels of L2 exposure frequency, highlights the importance of age of acquisition and dominance profiles for language processing. In terms of code-switching, our results revealed that bilinguals’ repetition accuracy differed across different types of code-switching. The processing effort associated with different types of code-switching in the sentence repetition task was primarily driven by the structural depth and the degree of mixing of the involved code-switch, i.e., dense forms of code-switching involving high levels of linguistic co-activation were harder to repeat than alternations involving unintegrated language switching. This effect partially converged with bilinguals’ sociolinguistic practices because bilinguals also reported lower exposure frequency to dense code-switching, but no direct correlations were observed at the level of individual differences. In terms of general cognitive functions, repetition accuracy was modulated by working memory but not by inhibitory control. By investigating this issue, we hope to contribute to our understanding of language processing in the face of cross-linguistic consolidation processes.

On the construct and perceptual validity measures of L1-based vs. L2-based elicitation as a measure of L2 classroom performance assessment

This study aimed at investigating the English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ perceptions of L1-based and L2-based elicitations in the English classroom employing an explanatory sequential mixed-method design. Ninety-seven Iranian intermediate EFL learners of English have been selected from Islamic Azad University (Science and Research Branch) in Tehran Province using a convenient sampling method. Of these, in the qualitative phase, 15 individuals were selected through a convenience sampling method as the focus group (N = 15; n = 8 for the L1 group and n = 7 for the L2 group). In the quantitative phase, 90 intermediate EFL learners were selected. The selected participants’ L2 performances were assessed through L1-based and L2-based elicitation techniques. They completed two validated researcher-made questionnaires to capture their perceptions of the elicitation techniques. Accordingly, five separate exploratory factor analyses were run to investigate the underlying constructs of the five components of the L1-based and L2-based perception questionnaires, the results of which showed that the correlation matrices were not singular and there were perfect correlations among all variables of L1-based and L2-based perception questionnaires. The findings show that the majority of respondents prefer to use their L2 in speaking classes and believe that L2 should be the prior language in general speaking classes. More than two-thirds of the respondents prefer to use L2 when they want to communicate with each other inside and outside of the classroom and prefer to use L2 in doing their assignments or performing orally in class. More than half of the respondents prefer to use L2 in assessment sessions.

A Review on the Effects of Foreign Language Anxiety on Second Language Learning

Foreign language anxiety (FLA) plays an indispensable role in students’ second language (L2) learning. This paper briefly reviewed the relevant research based on the foreign language classroom anxiety scale (FLCAS) in terms of the effects of FLA on students’ L2 skill performance and the debate on the role of FLA in L2 learning. The research indicated that FLA served as a confounding affective variable influencing L2 performance and achievement differently among the individuals. Furthermore, from the perspectives of L2 cognitive processing and the interference of the first language (L1), whether FLA was a cause or effect came under a heated discussion. Together, these findings suggest that L2 instructors should take both FLA anxiety reduction and L2 skill improvement into account to facilitate students’ L2 learning effectively.

EFL Learners’ Speaking Strategies: A Study of Low and High Proficiency Learners

Although the ability to speak is often considered a determining factor of learners ability in the target language, research has given scant attention to strategies that can be used to improve this skill. This study aimed to shed light on the speaking strategies that learners use to deal with problems they encounter when using the target language or to improve the quality of their L2 performance. This study deployed the Oral Communication Strategy Inventory (OCSI) developed by Nakatani (2006) to measure the strategies that students use in oral communications. In doing so, adopting the mixed-methods sequential explanatory design, this study investigated the use of speaking strategies of low and high proficiency English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in performing speaking tasks. The participants of the study were 23 low and 25 high proficiency students learning English in an institute in Iran. After performing the speaking tasks, the participants filled out the OCSI questionnaire and answered two open-ended questions. The results indicated that low and high proficiency students employ different strategies. While advanced learners used accuracy-oriented strategies the most and message abandonment strategies the least, message reduction strategies and thinking in English strategies, respectively, were found to be the most and the least frequently used by elementary learners. The Mann-Whitney U test indicated that of the six speaking strategies, only message abandonment and thinking in English strategies were found to be significantly different between elementary and advanced English learners. This study contributes in some ways to the understanding of how students’ proficiency level relates to their strategy use and provides English teachers with a variety of pedagogical methods to motivate students and enhance their oral production via speaking strategies.

Modeling Lexical and Phraseological Sophistication in Oral Proficiency Interviews: A Conceptual Replication

Building on previous studies investigating the multidimensional nature of lexical use in task-based L2 performance, this study clarified the roles that the distinct lexical features play in predicting vocabulary proficiency in a corpus of L2 Oral Proficiency Interviews (OPI). A total of 85 OPI samples were rated by three separate raters based on a Common European Frame of Reference (CEFR) based rubric in terms of their linguistic range. The interview transcription was analyzed for 56 lexical and phraseological indices using modern natural language processing tools. The result of an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed that the 56 indices tapped into 10 distinct factors of lexical use in OPI: three factors related to content words, three related to n-grams, three lexical collocation factors, and one function-word factor. A subsequent Bayesian mixed-effect ordinal regression indicated that six out of the 10 factors meaningfully predicted the CEFR levels on Range with reasonable accuracy (quadratic kappa coefficient = .81 with the human rating). The result highlights the distinct roles that multiple content-word, collocation, and function-word factors play in characterizing the linguistic range in a CEFR-based assessment of OPI. The implication for the assessment of lexical richness, as well as future directions of this research domain, are discussed.

WCF processing in the L2 curriculum: A look at type of WCF, type of linguistic item, and L2 performance

Whether type of written corrective feedback (WCF) impacts L2 learning has been investigated for decades. While many product-oriented studies report conflicting findings, the paucity of studies adopting both a process-oriented and curricular approach (e.g., Caras, 2019) underscores the call for further research on: a) the processing dimension of L2 writers’ engagement with WCF in this instructed setting (Manchón & Leow, 2020), b) from an ISLA applied perspective (Leow, 2019a; Leow & Manchón, 2022), and c) any potential relationship with subsequent performances. Also, whether type of linguistic item (e.g., morphological vs. syntactic) plays a role in the processing dimension also warrants further probing. This preliminary quasi-experimental study explored the cognitive processes of 10 adult L2 writers with minimal previous exposure to Spanish interacting with WCF (both direct and metalinguistic) on morphological and syntactic errors. Think aloud data gathered from three compositions written within the natural writing conditions of a foreign language curriculum were transcribed, coded for depth of processing (DoP) (Leow, 2015), and correlated with subsequent performances on the target items. The results revealed: 1) a higher DoP for metalinguistic WCF, 2) differences in processing of linguistic items, 3) similar DoP over time, and 4) a beneficial relationship between DoP and subsequent performances. Recommendations for future research underscore the importance of acknowledging variables within the instructed setting that may impact a pure effect of WCF on L2 development.

Formula omitted] filtering for discrete-time switched fuzzy delayed systems with channel fading via improved state-dependent switching

The present research investigates the H∞ filtering problem for a class of discrete-time switched Takagi–Sugeno (T-S) fuzzy systems with time-varying delay. The channel fading phenomenon is considered, where the fading rates are depicted by a random variable distributed over a certain interval with known statistical properties. Different from the reported relevant results, all subsystems of the considered switched fuzzy delayed systems can be unstable. To conquer the faultiness of the existing min-switching mechanism for switched delayed systems in discrete-time domain, the improved state-dependent switching paradigm and Lyapunov–Krasovskii functional (LKF) are constructed. As a result, sufficient conditions with less conservativeness are formulated. In addition, we have shown that the concerned filtering error system is asymptotically mean-square stable (AMSS) and possesses a standard ℓ2 performance level. Finally, the superiority and practicability of the proposed design approach are corroborated through the provided simulation examples.

Fault tolerant control of a permanent magnet synchronous machine using multiple constraints Takagi-Sugeno approach

Introduction. Fault diagnosis, and fault tolerant control issues are becoming very important to ensure a good supervision of systems and guarantee the safety of human operators and equipments even if system complexity increases. Problem. In fact, the presence of faults in actuators, sensors and processes can lead to system performance degradation, system breakdown, economic loss, and even disastrous situations. Furthermore, Actuator saturation or control input saturation is probably the most usual nonlinearity encountered in control engineering because of the physical impossibility of applying unlimited control signals and/or safety constraints. Purpose. This article is dedicated to the problem of fault tolerant control for constrained nonlinear systems described by a Takagi-Sugeno model. One of the interests of this type of models is the possibility of extend some tools and methods from linear system case to the nonlinear one. The novelty of the work consists in developing a fault tolerant control algorithm for a nonlinear Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine model using an observer based state-feedback control technique in order to enhance fault and state estimation despite actuator saturation and system disturbances. Methods. Indeed a sensor fault detection observer based residual generator is synthesized with a guaranteed L2 performance to attenuate the external disturbances effect from one side and to maximize the residual sensitivity to faults from the other side. Based on Lyapunov function, design conditions are formulated in terms of Linear Matrix Inequalities to ensure stability of the global system. Practical value. A detailed study concerning nonlinear permanent magnet synchronous machine model, which is consolidated by simulation results, is conducted to show the used algorithm’s effectiveness guarantying fault estimation and reconfiguration of the control law to maintain stable performance even in the presence of actuator faults, external perturbation and the phenomenon of actuator saturation.

Chatting with Your Peers across Modalities: Effects of Performing Increasingly Complex Written Computer-Mediated Tasks on Oral L2 Development

This study investigates whether peer interaction in a second language (L2) using written computer-mediated communication (CMC or text chat) may function as a bridge into oral performance. By designing and sequencing tasks according to the SSARC model of task complexity (we also examine its effects on L2 development. Finally, we explore the role of learners’ affective variables for L2 performance and development. Fifteen low–intermediate adolescent refugee learners of L2 English in the Netherlands participated in the study. Using a within-subject pre-test post-test design, we examined their language performance in both text-based CMC and face-to-face (F2F) tasks before and after a task-based classroom intervention. Results show that the intervention had a significant and strong effect on most of the linguistic measures of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF). Similar gains in text chat and oral interaction provide evidence that a direct transfer of language experiences across modalities can occur. Together with the fact that most participants valued the use of written CMC in the classroom, our findings indicate that increasingly complex text chat tasks can be an effective way to promote the oral skills of language learners. We discuss our findings in light of how the design of written CMC tasks can afford L2 development across modalities.

The Use of Canvas, A Learning Management System, to Reduce EFL Learners' Public Speaking Anxiety

As traditional education has evolved with the Internet and technology, e-learning has shown rapid and significant growth. Many studies have emphasized the positive effects of technology and online resources in foreign and second language education. Because of its role in reducing foreign language anxiety, the use of digital technology has an important role in learners’ emotional healing. Therefore, the use of a digital platform, Canvas, and the exploration of its effects on learners’ public speaking anxiety and performance in L2 are the main research foci in this study. With this point of departure, in order to measure the effect of intervention related to the use of online speaking tasks and podcasts through Canvas, a one-group pretest-posttest was employed. Data regarding participants’ public speaking anxiety before and after the treatment were collected through the PRPSA (Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety) scale. Additionally, speaking rubrics were used as assessment tools for scoring learners’ pre and post oral performances. For more detailed information related to the participants’ learning experiences and changes in their emotional states, participants were encouraged to join online forums on Canvas. The results showed that the use of digital platforms and podcasts had a significant role in boosting learners’ confidence and public speaking performances through alleviating their anxiety.