L2 Oral Proficiency Research Articles

The Role of Prekindergarten Spanish in Predicting First-Grade English Word Reading Among Dual-Language Learners.

Purpose The purpose of the current study was to examine the role that the 1st language, Spanish, at prekindergarten (pre-K) plays in predicting 2nd language (L2), English, word reading in 1st grade. In addition, it examines the role of conceptual vocabulary in predicting word reading in English. Method As part of a longitudinal study of predictors and models of reading comprehension from pre-K to 3rd grade, 248 children attending preschool programs completed Spanish and English measures in the spring of each academic year. In this article, we report the results of English and Spanish measures of oral language and literacy skills that were administered in pre-K and 4 measures of English word reading that were administered in 1st grade. Results Results from structural equation modeling indicated that Spanish oral language made significant direct and indirect contributions to English oral language and word reading. Further, results supported previous evidence indicating that L2 letter knowledge and L2 oral language proficiency are the strongest predictors of L2 word reading in 1st grade. Discussion Similar to findings with monolingual English-speaking children, results support findings that, in the early stages of reading development, oral language in both 1st language and L2 make a significant and independent contribution to word reading. This study has important implications for the support of oral language skills in Latino preschool children.

Developing L2 Oral Proficiency through Synchronous CMC: Output, Working Memory, and Interlanguage Development

A naturalistic experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) can indirectly improve L2 oral proficiency by developing the same cognitive mechanisms underlying spontaneous conversational speech. The theoretical framework guiding this inquiry consists of Levelt's (1989) model of language production augmented by concepts from Working Memory theory. The findings show a significant difference between the experimental and control groups oral proficiency development with participants in the experimental condition (two of four contact hours per week were in a chatroom) scoring higher than participants in the control condition. Implications for language instruction and the second language oral proficiency development for different types of learners are discussed.

Laughter as Responses to Different Actions in L2 Oral Proficiency Interview

Laughter, as an important interactional resource, has been recognized as not simply a response to humor in many researches. It is much related to an action formation from the perspective of Conversation Analysis. In this oral proficiency interviews for admission into a certain English college between native interviewer and Chinese candidates, there appear quite a number of cases in which laughter serves as the major constituent of the responding turn to the first pair part (FPP) (except for questions) in terms of adjacency pair. This study, therefore, identifies those responding actions that laughter performs, or concurrently constructs, from the perspective of Conversation Analysis, and explores the reasons why laughter is employed and the roles that laughter has achieved. Hence it contributes to the understanding of laughter as a resource of alignment or affiliation in oral proficiency interview, and consequently a vital paralinguistic constituent of L2 interactional competence.

What is phonological awareness in L2?

Abstract Phonological awareness is widely recognized as an important component of L2 reading. Phonological awareness is also considered a primarily metalinguistic skill not affected by the individual's L2 language proficiency, or by L1-L2 linguistic distance. The current paper takes a different perspective on L2 phonological awareness. It argues that L2 phonological awareness is affected by L2 language-specific factors, and that these factors may be as equally implicated in phonological awareness in L2 as the metalinguistic insight that words may be broken down into phonological units – often considered the hallmark of the phonological awareness construct. In support of this claim, we discuss two types of evidence. The first concerns significant differences between phonological awareness in L1 and L2, as well as a significant correlation between L2 oral language proficiency and phonological awareness in L2. The second concerns linguistic distance and the effect on L2 phonological awareness of phonological differences between L1 and L2. Both pieces of evidence are used to promote the argument that it is important to view phonological awareness in L2 as a two-dimensional construct encompassing a metalinguistic component, which may be metalinguistic in nature and language-independent, and a linguistic component which is language-specific and reflects phonological representations in L2.

Developing L2 oral language proficiency using concept-based Dynamic Assessment within a large-scale testing context

Oral language proficiency (OLP) is a central facet of foreign language learning. Nevertheless, it is a component that is challenging both to teach and to test (Luoma, 2004). In an effort to optimize these processes, this paper examines the application of the Vygotskian notion of Dynamic Assessment (DA) as a means to prioritize the learning-assessment relationship with a view to enhancing OLP performance and up-scaling DA use for larger groups of learners to match large-scale test contexts. In this study, Israeli high-school students preparing for their matriculation OLP test in EFL, which focuses on the measures of Communicative Ability (fluency) and Accuracy, underwent a single short-term DA mediation session following a pre-test. A teacher-tester administered the mediation to individuals and groups of students as they analyzed a video recording of their pre-tests, equipped with a theoretical scientific-concept-based instrument (SCOBA). Post- and follow-up tests were given to all participants. Findings show that students who underwent DA mediation improved scores in the post- and follow-up tests for both measures, suggesting that this form of DA mediation may have beneficial short and longer-term impact on OLP performance within a large-scale context.

Developing L2 oral language proficiency using concept-based Dynamic assessment within a large-scale testing context

Oral language proficiency (OLP) is a central facet of foreign language learning. Nevertheless, it is a component that is challenging both to teach and to test (Luoma, 2004). In an effort to optimize these processes, this paper examines the application of the Vygotskian notion of Dynamic Assessment (DA) as a means to prioritize the learning-assessment relationship with a view to enhancing OLP performance and up-scaling DA use for larger groups of learners to match large-scale test contexts. In this study, Israeli high-school students preparing for their matriculation OLP test in EFL, which focuses on the measures of Communicative Ability (fluency) and Accuracy, underwent a single short-term DA mediation session following a pre-test. A teacher-tester administered the mediation to individuals and groups of students as they analyzed a video recording of their pre-tests, equipped with a theoretical scientific-concept-based instrument (SCOBA). Post- and follow-up tests were given to all participants. Findings show that students who underwent DA mediation improved scores in the post- and follow-up tests for both measures, suggesting that this form of DA mediation may have beneficial short and longer-term impact on OLP performance within a large-scale context.

The Effectiveness of Synchronous Videoconferencing on the Oral Proficiency of Novice Language Learners

This paper investigated the extent to which videoconferencing-supported distance L2 instruction would have an impact on adult learners’ attainment of Korean and Chinese in terms of L2 oral language skills. Many relevant studies on videoconferencing mainly reported findings obtained from pilot projects. Meanwhile, research on videoconferencing use in regular L2 learning class remains relatively unfledged. In order to address such a research gap, this study reported the findings of adult learners’ L2 oral language development via synchronous videoconferencing. Novice Korean and Chinese L2 learners participated in L2 oral proficiency tests and a survey after they studied their target languages over an intensive 120-hour language course mainly using videoconferencing. The results of the pre-test and post-test suggest that there was a significant increase in both Korean and Chinese learners’ L2 oral performances, achieving higher proficiency levels. The findings of a survey also show that they seemed to perceive benefits of having the videoconferencing as a distance L2 languagelearning tool. This study suggests that videoconferencing could provide novice L2 learners with learning environments to develop their L2 oral proficiency.

The Long-Term English Language and Literacy Outcomes of First-Generation Former Child Immigrants in the United States

Background/Context Children from Asian ethnic backgrounds currently constitute the second largest group of child immigrants in the United States. Although stereotyped as model minority students due to their academic and economic success, studies have revealed that many Asian immigrant students struggle in school. Research has also shown that, compared to child immigrants from an Indo-European language background such as Spanish and French, Asian child immigrants experience more challenges in learning English as a second language (L2) due to greater cross-linguistic differences. However, little is known about the long-term English language outcomes of first-generation Asian child immigrants. Purpose/Objective The present study examines the effects of learner-level and input-level factors on first-generation Asian child immigrants’ long-term English outcomes. Research Design Data for the current study are selected from a larger correlational and cross-sectional study that examined the effect of the age of arrival variable on Chinese immigrants’ English L2 outcomes. We used two criteria to select participants from the larger study: (1) those who had arrived in the United States between the ages of 5 to 18 (to qualify as a “child immigrant”), and (2) those who had resided in the United States for at least 10 years (to examine long-term outcomes). These criteria resulted in the current sample of 69 participants. The English language proficiency data include participants’ phonological production ratings, performances on a grammaticality judgment task, and their self-ratings of English proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Conclusions/Recommendations The current study showed a complex interplay of factors affecting former child immigrants’ English L2 acquisition. Although age of arrival played a critical role in their L2 learning outcomes, it exerted varying degrees of influence by L2 domain. Age of arrival was a strong predictor of L2 phonological production, grammar knowledge, and oral language proficiency, but not literacy skills. L2 input, language learning aptitude, and child immigrants’ affective status also contributed to their L2 outcomes, and carried more weight than age of arrival. We interpreted the results to be in line with the multiple sensitive period hypothesis in developmental psycholinguistics research. The results also suggested that literacy is not susceptible to age-related effects in the same way in which oral language and more specifically the phonological and syntactic systems are. Literacy as a cultural construct rather than a biologically unique human system is intensively taught throughout the school years and curriculum. Malleable factors, such as instruction and reading strategies, are thus perhaps more important in determining child immigrants’ long-term literacy outcomes.

Automatization in second language sentence processing: Relationship between elicited imitation and maze tasks

The present study investigates the automatization of second language (L2) sentence processing. It compares the extent to which a mere speedup (faster execution) and restructuring (more stable execution) of sentence processing contribute to L2 oral performance. The maze task is used to measure the speed (reaction time, RT) and processing stability (coefficient of variance, CV) of sentence processing. The elicited imitation (EI) task measures L2 oral proficiency (repetition accuracy and accuracy in plural and third person s). These tasks were performed by 110 English-as-a-foreign-language learners with Japanese as their L1. The results show that only RT, not CV, significantly predicts L2 oral proficiency. Even though a subgroup of learners, who previously stayed in an English-speaking country, demonstrated some indications of automatization, RT was a better predictor of L2 oral proficiency than CV, irrespective of immersion experience. These findings suggest that CV has little practical value in predicting L2 oral proficiency.

Equity in L2 English oral assessment: Criterion-based facts or works of fiction?

For assessment to be equitable, it is central that teachers/raters perceive and apply grade criteria similarly. However, in assessing L2 oral proficiency in paired tests, raters must grade test-takers individually on a joint interaction performance. With a conversation analytic approach, we examine closely one recording from a 9th-grade national test of L2 English with an aim to uncover some aspects that underpin vastly divergent assessments (as assigned by three raters) of one test-taker. Findings pointing to issues such as moral stance, rater experiences, and the interlocutor effect are discussed in light of equity in L2 oral proficiency testing and assessment.

ASSESSING SECOND-LANGUAGE ORAL PROFICIENCY FOR RESEARCH

Proficiency is a key variable in late second language (L2) learning, but one that is undermeasured in current research. This study investigates whether L2 oral proficiency can be quickly and reliably assessed via the Spanish “elicited imitation task” (EIT; Ortega, Iwashita, Rabie, & Norris, 1999). Thirty-seven L2 learners of Spanish with varied L2 experience (from low to very advanced) were tested. The EIT’s external validity was assessed via correlation with the simulated oral proficiency interview. Further analyses examined the EIT’s internal reliability, discriminatory power, and usefulness in identifying subgroups (clusters) of learners within the sample. Results strongly support the utility of the Spanish EIT for measurement of oral proficiency in SLA research. Moreover, the availability of parallel EITs in other languages promises to facilitate comparisons across studies. Thus, more precise measurement and analysis of proficiency in SLA research is called for via standardized measurements including the EIT.

Testing L2 Talk: A Review of Empirical Studies on Second‐Language Oral Proficiency Testing

AbstractIn this review article, empirical studies published from 2004 through 2014 on second‐language (L2) oral proficiency testing are analyzed, with a specific focus on discourse and social interaction in such tests. Taking three common test setups, oral proficiency interviews (OPIs), paired peer tests, and group peer tests as an organizing principle for the studies examined, recent developments in L2 oral proficiency testing research are situated, reviewed, and discussed, with a particular focus on tests conducted in face‐to‐face contexts. Findings from the review of selected journals, databases, monographs, and edited collections indicate (1) a prevalence of studies of the OPI format, but a growing research base on paired and group tests, (2) an absence of oral test studies in discourse journals, and (3) an emphasis on assessment, validation, and rater perspectives, as opposed to detailed analyses of interaction in L2 tests.

Oral Skill Development in Second Languages: A Review in Search of Best Practices

There are many avenues of research in the field of second language (L2) acquisition. One that continues to be of great importance to researchers but also teachers is the development of students’ oral proficiency skills. Research regarding effective teaching and learning strategies to aid L2 oral development has garnered much attention, yet a clear set of “best practices” remains absent. In an attempt to bring to the forefront some effective strategies for L2 oral skill development, we undertook a review of the literature in the areas of oral proficiency, academic language development, and L2 teaching and learning strategies. As our review presents research findings from various contexts around the world, our aim is not to provide a one-size-fits-all approach to improving students’ L2 oral proficiency but to share issues from research that can and do inform teaching practice. Practical suggestions for L2 teachers that are connected to the findings of research are offered throughout the paper.

THE ROLE OF AGE OF ACQUISITION IN LATE SECOND LANGUAGE ORAL PROFICIENCY ATTAINMENT

The current project examined whether and to what degree age of acquisition (AOA), defined as the first intensive exposure to a second language (L2) environment, can be predictive of the end state of postpubertal L2 oral proficiency attainment. Data were collected from 88 experienced Japanese learners of English and two groups of 20 baseline speakers (inexperienced Japanese speakers and native English speakers). The global quality of their spontaneous speech production was first judged by 10 native English-speaking raters based on accentedness (linguistic nativelikeness) and comprehensibility (ease of understanding) and was then submitted to segmental, prosodic, temporal, lexical, and grammatical analyses. According to the results, AOA was negatively correlated with the accentedness and comprehensibility components of L2 speech production, owing to relatively strong age effects on segmental and prosodic attainment. Yet significant age effects were not observed in the case of fluency and lexicogrammar attainment. The results suggest that AOA plays a key role in determining the extent to which learners can attain advanced-level L2 oral abilities via improving the phonological domain of language (e.g., correct consonant and vowel pronunciation and adequate and varied prosody) and that the temporal and lexicogrammatical domains of language (e.g., optimal speech rate and proper vocabulary and grammar usage) may be enhanced with increased L2 experience, regardless of age.

Experience Effects on the Development of Late Second Language Learners’ Oral Proficiency

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of second language (L2) experience–operationalized as length of residence (LOR) in Canada—on late Japanese learners of English. Data collected from 65 participants consisted of three groups of learners (short‐, mid‐, and long‐LOR groups) and two baseline groups of native Japanese and native English speakers, with 13 participants in each group. The global quality of the participants’ spontaneous speech production was initially judged by 10 native‐speaking English raters for accentedness (linguistic nativelikeness) and comprehensibility (ease of understanding) and then submitted to segmental, prosodic, temporal, lexical, and grammatical analyses. According to the results, LOR was generally predictive of improved comprehensibility through its association with adequate and varied prosody, optimal speech rate, and proper lexicogrammar usage. In contrast, contributions of LOR to accentedness remained unclear, with less accented speech linked to refined segmental accuracy, vocabulary richness, and grammatical complexity. These findings suggest that learners continue to improve in their L2 oral proficiency over an extensive period of L2 immersion (e.g., 6 years of LOR), and they likely do so by paying selective attention to certain linguistic domains closely linked to comprehensibility—but not necessarily relevant to accentedness—for the purpose of successful L2 communication.

Reexamining motive in L2 oral proficiency development

This article investigates the construction and transformation of motive in L2 oral proficiency development. Taking a longitudinal, genetic and case study approach, this study followed a Chinese EFL undergraduate throughout the second semester of her first college year in the class of English Public Speaking. Sources of data include interviews, audio tape recordings of oral data in and out of the classroom, and weekly reflective journals. The study examines the learner's developmental process as constructed by the changing motive, on the one hand, and the learner's motive as shaped by forces of learner history, the mediated learning process, and the institutional context in which the learning was situated, on the other. When development occurred, the learner demonstrated a shift in motive, changes in the quality of independent speech as well as the amount and quality of mediation provided to her partner in collaborative dialogues, and a higher level of self-regulation. The article concludes by discussing its contribution to the ongoing research on learner motive as a socially-mediated construct by showing the mutually constitutive, co-evolving relationship among learner motive, the mediated learning process, and L2 development.

Reexamining motive in L2 oral proficiency development: An activity theory perspective

This article investigates the construction and transformation of motive in L2 oral proficiency development. Taking a longitudinal, genetic and case study approach, this study followed a Chinese EFL undergraduate throughout the second semester of her first college year in the class of English Public Speaking. Sources of data include interviews, audio tape recordings of oral data in and out of the classroom, and weekly reflective journals. The study examines the learner's developmental process as constructed by the changing motive, on the one hand, and the learner's motive as shaped by forces of learner history, the mediated learning process, and the institutional context in which the learning was situated, on the other. When development occurred, the learner demonstrated a shift in motive, changes in the quality of independent speech as well as the amount and quality of mediation provided to her partner in collaborative dialogues, and a higher level of self-regulation. The article concludes by discussing its contribution to the ongoing research on learner motive as a socially-mediated construct by showing the mutually constitutive, co-evolving relationship among learner motive, the mediated learning process, and L2 development.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) in L2 oral proficiency development: A meta-analysis

AbstractThe ever growing interest in the development of foreign or second (L2) oral proficiency in a computer-mediated communication (CMC) classroom has resulted in a large body of studies looking at both the direct and indirect effects of CMC interventions on the acquisition of oral competences. The present study employed a quantitative meta-analytic approach to investigate such effects by synthesizing (quasi)experimental studies that provide empirical quantitative data for effect size calculation. A literature search located 25 relevant studies for the final analysis. Each study was independently coded for learner, design and publication characteristics. The averaged effect size was estimated from the included studies. The results of the meta-analysis reveal that communication mediated by computer/technologies produced a moderate positive effect on L2 learners’ oral proficiency compared to face-to-face (F2F) communication or no interaction. Furthermore, CMC has roughly similar effect on pronunciation, lexical and syntactic level of oral production; however, it might have a negative impact on fluency and accuracy. This meta-analysis also found that the effect of CMC on oral proficiency depends on several methodological factors such as task type, outcome measurement, treatment length, and assessment task. Major findings of the current meta-analysis include: (1) studies relying on elicited data are superior to those utilizing naturalistic data; (2) reading aloud seems to be the task that could elicit the best oral performance from students; (3) surprisingly, CMC appeared to be harmful for accuracy and fluency; (4) studies that employed decision-making generated the largest effect size, followed by studies that used more than one task type; (5) among the four tasks, jigsaw actually generated a negative effect on oral performance; and (6) as the most popular task employed by primary researchers, opinion-exchange studies produced the smallest effect size. These findings need to be interpreted as exploratory rather than confirmatory since each of them became less trustworthy after taking into consideration numerous other factors such as CMC task and the particular CMC tool used, etc. Future research suggestions are provided and the limitations of this meta-analysis are addressed.

Impact of affective variables on Korean as a foreign language learners' oral achievement

While research on affective variables abounds in the foreign and second language acquisition literature, few studies have examined the role that learner affect plays in learning a less commonly taught language (LCTL) such as Korean. This study examines potential relationships between affective variables (i.e., motivation, anxiety, linguistic self-confidence, and risk-taking) and oral achievement in a KFL (Korean as a Foreign Language) North American college classroom setting. The results showed that learners' achievement was positively correlated with linguistic self-confidence and risk-taking while negatively associated with anxiety. A positive correlation was also found between motivation and linguistic self-confidence. Anxiety was negatively correlated with linguistic self-confidence and risk-taking. Among the four affective variables investigated, only risk-taking was identified as a significant predictor of student achievement in oral skills. Findings suggest that (1) learners' affective states play a significant role in learning an L2 that is non-cognate with and distant from their L1 and (2) effortful and frequent attempts of risk-taking should be particularly emphasized to enhance learners' achievement in L2 oral proficiency.

READING ALOUD STRATEGIES IN READING ENGLISH TEXTS

Reading aloud by a young language learner shows unique patterns as the evidence of his/her language data processing. This study, thus, explored the strategies applied by an Indonesian young language learner to read English written texts aloud to identify errors that actually bring certain benefits in her language learning process such as making intelligent guesses when she encountered unfamiliar words. It adopted qualitative case study design involving a seven-year old girl as the subject, who had been exposed to English four yearearlier.The data were gained through observing her reading and interviewing her after reading. The data from both techniques confirmed each other and provided in-depth data analysis.Next, the data were analyzed under the the framework synthesized from Littlewood (1984). The findings indicated that to read aloud the subject made use of three strategies among others: overgeneralization, transfer and simplification. This means that the subject employed her L2 oral proficiency and L1 reading ability to process the L2 data from reading. The study implies that educators need to pay moreattention on how children process the language data they gain and to povide appropriate learning environments in order to prepare them to be better readers, beside improving awareness in similarities and differences of L1 and L2. Keywords:young learner, reading strategies, read aloud