L2 Learning Process Research Articles

How does teacher support contribute to learners’ grit? The role of learning enjoyment

ABSTRACT Learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) is a lengthy, demanding, and challenging process, which requires learners’ L2 grit relating to their perseverance of effort and consistency of interest. Motivated by the growing body of research on L2 grit over the past few years, this study examined the role of perceived teacher support and learning enjoyment as two important learner external and internal factors, respectively, in promoting EFL learners’ L2 grit. The participants were 339 EFL learners selected by multi-stage cluster sampling. The results of SEM indicated that perceived teacher support directly and positively predicted L2 grit, which clearly highlights the role of teachers as an essential element of any language learning situation in motivating and supporting students to exert considerable effort in their learning process and enhance their interest, enthusiasm, persistence, and effort. Additionally, learning enjoyment played a mediating role in the association between perceived teacher support and L2 grit, which indicates its potential for promoting learners’ cognitive resources and fostering their continued effort and sustained interest in the lengthy and demanding process of L2 learning. Finally, implications relating to the role of teachers in enhancing learners’ enjoyment and grit are presented.

Foreign Learning Environment Reduces Negative Transfer in Pronunciation: An Analysis of the Oral Output of Chinese University EFL Learners

Negative interlingual transfer is a crucial topic in the field of linguistics, which makes the theory of second language acquisition complete. Language transfer refers to transfer of language features between or within languages, in which interlingual transfer is the one focuses on the transfer between two languages. The study explores the typical types of negative interlingual transfer in pronunciation of Chinese university EFL learners and factors affecting the degree of negative interlingual transfer in pronunciation in their L2 learning process. To achieve this purpose, the article adopts error analysis (EA) to scrutinize the errors collected by semi-structured interviews. The participants are 20 Chinese university EFL learners whose L1 is Chinese. Ten of them are from Chinese domestic universities, while the other ten come from Sino-foreign university in China or studying abroad. The result is that: typical errors are divided into segmental errors including mispronouncing vowels, adding a vowel between consonant clusters, wrongly emphasizing and extending ending consonants and replacing consonants in English with similar Chinese phonemes, and suprasegmental mistakes, encompassing stress transfer, too flat or too exaggerated intonation and lack of liaison. As for the contributing factors of negative interlingual transfer, the article contends that learning environment is a significant factor. Foreign learning environment can lead to fewer errors and reduce negative interlingual transfer.

Understanding Learners' Metacognition of Online Teacher Feedback Amid COVID-19: A Case Study in a University Livestream Instruction Context.

While research on metacognition in second language (L2) learning has burgeoned in the past two decades, its relation to actual teaching behaviors, such as teacher feedback, remains to be fully described and explained in L2 classroom, especially in livestream English teaching settings. To fill this gap, this case study examined how learners utilize and regulate metacognition of online teacher feedback during COVID-19 in a Chinese inner land university. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews. With qualitative and interpretive analysis, it is revealed that leaners positively receive online teacher feedback for its detrimentalness together with a growth mindset and high levels of resilience, but, on the whole, there is a metacognitive deficit: they misinterpret self-consciousness about online feedback which is underpinned by a conception of tasks that characterizes online L2 learning. This research expands our understanding of L2 learning processes pertaining to awareness and management of teacher feedback receiving and may also shed light on solutions to empower livestream teaching by building external scaffolding devices to compensate weaknesses of online L2 education during the pandemic and beyond.

Diversity of Learners: A Study about how Individual Differences Affect the L2 Learning Process

Individual differences are considered one of the main factors in language learning. This article begins by presenting the definition of individual differences and identifying the possible individual differences that may affect the L2 learning process are. Based on the literature review, shows that there are eight (8) major individual differences to be found as salient features in the L2 learning process. A brief overview of these eight (8) individual differences is provided, supported by the literature review of 20 journal articles. This journal article used grounded theory design as a method in identifying the relationship of the following individual differences in the L2 learning process. According to the results, although there is a growth in the study of individual differences that affects the L2 learning process, there is still much work to be done and much more investigation is required.

명시적 문법 지식과 학습자 인식 연구 -스페인어 원망동사의 종속절 시제 사용을 중심으로-

Grammar rules instruction plays a very important role in foreign language education, where students learn the rules of the target language in a classroom environment and develop language skills based on them. Native speakers naturally acquire their native language and have a good intuition for grammar rules. However, classroom learners are provided with explicit explanations of the L2 grammar rules and, after internalizing these rules, produce a target forms based on their grammatical knowledge. In this sense, it has been argued that the metalinguistic awareness of classroom learners is very important in L2 teaching and learning. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether Spanish L2 learners recognize the difference between volitional verbs and produce grammatically correct sentences, focused on the tense of subjunctive verb used in the subordinate clause selected by the volitional verb. Based on the results of the tasks realized in this study, we propose that grammar rules that are not recognized in the L2 learning process do not become the learner’s explicit linguistic knowledge, and then the effect of consciousness plays a crucial role in L2 processing.

Effects of the Internalization of Peer-Modeled Self-efficacy on Coping with L2 Communication Stress

This mixed-methods study explores the self-regulation of two Japanese university students in response to the stressful situation of feeling unable to communicate effectively in English with foreigners. Qualitative data from interviews are used to interpret the quantitative results of the two students, who were part of an online intercultural Japan-Canada university exchange in which half of the communication was in English. Due to the reality check of using English for communication with foreigners, both students realized that their English communication skills were weak. Self-efficacy and coping strategies modeled by peers were internalized by one student who could subsequently cope with the demands of interacting in English, and who developed a challenge orientation and set a new goal as a result. The other student became demotivated and withdrew over time. Theories related to stress and coping, self-efficacy, peer modeling, internalization, self-regulation, and possible selves are incorporated to provide a multi-dimensional view of the processes involved in the self-regulation of these students. By looking at the experiences of the two students at the individual level, insight may be gained into the reasons behind student engagement in and withdrawal from L2 learning processes. In particular, the importance of peer modeling to positive changes in student actual and ideal selves is examined.

Syntactic Networks of Interlanguage Across L2 Modalities and Proficiency Levels.

Over time, interlanguage studies have shifted from early qualitative to quantitative studies of specific linguistic structures. However, the focus of these studies is usually on one aspect of an interlanguage instead of the whole system. The ideal object of interlanguage research is a second language (L2) learner language system, for only in this way can the entire L2 learning process can be examined. As a self-organizing and self-regulated system, the panorama of interlanguage can be revealed objectively through a complex network approach. In this study, we construct eight interlanguage dependency syntactic networks of varying proficiency levels and modalities, and conduct a quantitative study of respective network parameters. We find that all syntactic networks of Chinese L2 learners (English native speakers) initially present scale-free and small-world properties. Additionally, there is no sudden syntactic emergence in interlanguage with different modalities. This suggests varying regularities in the development of a syntactic network between interlanguage and native language acquisition. Moreover, the first language plays an important role in L2 development. The network parameters (<k>), L, C, ND, and NC can differentiate interlanguage modalities, and five quantitative parameters, <k>, C, ND, γ′, and NC, can indicate L2 proficiency.

EPIK Teachers’ Beliefs About Language Learning and Teaching Processes

The present study investigated newly recruited native-speaking teachers of the English Programin Korea (EPIK) with a focus on their individual characteristics, their perceptions on second language (L2) learning and teaching processes, and their teaching experience as a variable (novice vs. expert) in their understanding of language learning and teaching processes. A questionnaire wasgiven to 244 EPIK teachers. Analysis of the self-reported data revealed that EPIK teachers were mostly in their 20s who were recruited from six inner-circle countries withteaching certificates. Results also demonstrated the importance of a teacher’s teaching experience, where subsequent mean-difference models of novice and expert teachers revealed significant differences in their understanding of L2 learning and teaching processes. Findings showed that teachers with experience had beliefs aligned with thebest teaching practices. These findings open discussions about the necessity of adequate subsequent support for native-speaking teachers.

Linking L2 proficiency and patterns of functional connectivity during L1 word retrieval

Second language (L2) learners differ greatly in language proficiency, which is partially explained by variability in native language (L1) skills. The present fMRI study explored the neural underpinnings of the L1-L2 link. Twenty L2 learners completed a tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) task that required retrieving words in L1. Low-proficiency L2 learners showed greater functional connectivity for correct and TOT responses between the left inferior frontal gyrus and right-sided homologues of the temporoparietal regions that support phonological processing (e.g., supramarginal gyrus), possibly reflecting difficulty with phonological retrieval. High-proficiency L2 learners showed greater connectivity for erroneous responses (TOT in particular) between the left inferior frontal gyrus and regions of left medial temporal lobe (e.g., hippocampus), associated with implicit learning processes. The difference between low- and high-proficiency L2 learners in functional connectivity, which is evident even during L1 processing, may affect L2 learning processes and outcomes.

Das inferências à interpretação recursiva na leitura do texto literário em L2

When it comes to L2 reading, literary texts are often seen as barriers which are difficult to overcome even in higher proficiency levels, since they do not rely solely on a certain level of language performance. This text questions the influence that inferential processing (Kintsch 1998; Koda 2004) has on deep comprehension (Bernhardt 1991: 2011) and on the distance that this genre demands from its reader (Armstrong 2013; Olson 1994). Advantages of literary reading are pointed out in what concerns a L2 learning process, insofar as they leave a mark on the reader’s mental flexibility, as s/he is forced to escape cognitive routines, and led into feeding a future cognitive reservoir (Armstrong 2013; Paradis 2004; Pinto 2010; 2013).

The interplay between identity construction and L2 investment during study abroad program: cases of MBA students from China

ABSTRACT The study looked into three Chinese MBA students' discursive language and cultural behavior in an American study abroad (SA) program. It intended to unveil the complex social and individual factors shaping the students' second language (L2) and cultural learning. The key notions of identity and investment were employed to interpret the three MBA students' L2 acquisition in the American business school. The study revealed that learners' L2 investment and learning process during SA could be further complicated by their divergent academic and professional identities. Based on the findings, educational implications were drawn for SA programs in international education.

A Brief Review of L2MSS: Its History and Development

Motivation is a significant factor affecting L2 learning. It is not only the source power for L2 learning, but also a continuous driving force in the long and boring L2 learning process, which acts as the important emotional factor in sustaining learners’ passion for L2. So research on L2 motivation has always been a flourishing field in SLA studies for the past five decades. Since the 1970s, more and more L2 learning researchers have turned to language learners, and learning motivation has thus become the focus of their attention. This paper summarizes the four developmental stages of second language motivation theory, combs the previous studies on L2MSS at home and abroad, and introduces the background and main contents of the L2MSS theory, as well as giving a brief comment on L2MSS as the latest development in the second language motivation research.

다중언어 학습자의 자아 이미지와 학습동기 체계 및 언어 능력 간의 구조적 관계

This study explores structural relationships among the self image, learning motivational self system, and language learning ability of multilingual learners. A total of one hundred twenty of the participants were learning English as an L2 and Chinese or Japanese as an L3 at colleges in Korea. The Structural Equation Model analysis showed that there were differences in pathways between the motivational factors in L2 and L3 learning systems. The findings showed that in the L2 learning process, the ideal-self and the learning attitude directly affected the L2 ability while the positive L3 self-image and the L3 learning attitude affected the L3 ability in the L3 learning. The result suggested that the L2 and L3 learning factors should be differently considered in each target language learning and teaching process.

A contribuição da instrução e do treinamento fonético no ensino de L2

Esta resenha apresenta resultados de três trabalhos sobre instrução e treinamento fonético no ensino de pronúncia de segunda língua (L2). Atualmente, o treinamento fonético está voltado para a melhoria da inteligibilidade da fala do aprendiz de L2. As pesquisas foram aplicadas com falantes de diferentes línguas que eram aprendizes de inglês ou de mandarim como L2. Os resultados de uma série de experimentos com pré e pós-treinamento apontam para a eficácia da instrução e do treinamento fonético no ensino de pronúncia de L2. O principal objetivo desse tipo de prática é não só fazer os aprendizes adquirirem consciência fonológica na língua-alvo, mas também facilitar seu processo de aprendizagem na L2.

English spelling acquisition by English Language Learners from Spanish-speaking background: The role of cognitive and linguistic resources and L1 reading status

Specific cognitive and linguistic factors, e.g., phonological memory and vocabulary knowledge to name a few, have been shown to influence spelling development in any native language, as well as among individuals learning an additional one. Spelling acquisition is also dependent on language typology, and may be subject to cross-linguistic transfer based on the level of L1 proficiency (e.g., schooling in L1). The present study examined acquisition of English (L2) spelling by a group of 5th and 6th graders (n = 60) whose L1 (Spanish) continues to be the home language, but whose main language of school instruction is L2. We addressed spelling acquisition based on English Language proficiency levels and L1 reading status (i.e., readers or non-readers in native language). Our results suggest that spelling errors reflected L1 interference or interlingual influences, based on structural differences between English and Spanish. Increased levels of L2 proficiency, however, resulted in more intralingual influences as part of the L2 learning process. Phonological memory was the most significant cognitive element supporting L2 spelling, which concurred with previous research. Reading ability in L1 was another contributor to L2 spelling quality, suggesting cross-linguistic transfer. We discuss the possible continuous role of oral L1 influence in the acquisition of L2 spelling and educational implications.

Studies in English Education 게재 논문에 나타난 Instructed Second Language Acquisition 연구 분석(2015년-2019년)

Instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) has drawn much attention from both researchers and teaching practitioners and engendered a great amount of empirical research and discussion on the effectiveness of various instructional methods in L2 learning and how such instruction leads to L2 development. Similarly, given that instruction may be one critical channel through which L2 learners access target linguistic samples and knowledge in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts, ISLA has also been researched as an area of particular importance for English learners in Korea. This article reviews the much-evidenced empirical trend for ISLA research reflected in empirical studies published in Studies in English Education. Of 165 articles published in the journal over the past 5 years (2015-2019), 48 articles were found to have explored various aspects of instruction-based learning, broadening the scope of research on ISLA. Each individual study was analyzed and illustrated in terms of research designs and diverse issues of L2 learning and learning processes. Obviously, ISLA merits much more empirical research in the years to come.

The dynamism of strategic learning: Complexity theory in strategic L2 development

Learners of foreign languages (L2s) apply strategies to support learning processes and L2 development. They select strategies according to their individual needs and preferences and adjust their strategic actions to suit situational circumstances and contextual conditions. A holistic investigation of strategic L2 learning processes requires the integration of numerous interconnected, flexibly-interacting influences, which are at constant interplay with each other and whose development is difficult to predict. Validated as effective in other fields of applied linguistics, complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) can also provide an appropriate frame for researching strategic L2 learning. Based on state-of-the-art methodological guidance for complexity research, this article presents the re-analysis of empirical data from a previous study through a complexity lens. It further examines the suitability of CDST in strategy research, explores its practical value, and demonstrates that a complexity perspective can generate new, profound information about strategic learning.

Internationalizing Secondary Education in Poland Through English as a Medium of Instruction

Since English as a lingua franca is extending into virtually all domains of public life, non-Anglophone countries move away from the approach of English being taught as a foreign language (EFL) to the practice of English being a medium of instruction for content subjects. The methodology is increasingly implemented at all educational levels from primary to tertiary education. Yet few empirical studies have been undertaken into how the programmes are run. Thus, the article presents the findings of a research project, which attempted to provide a broad picture of this phenomenon in the Polish context. The article explores the two most recognized bilingual programmes in the European Union, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and English Medium Instruction (EMI), both being thoroughly investigated in the paper. The article attempts to shed light on the teaching approaches applied in EMI classes. In addition, it discusses the extent to which the English language is used in such classes (partial or exclusive). Further, it focuses on the implications L1 interference has for the L2 learning process taking place in the classroom. Last but not least, the study gives a brief account of students’ and teachers’ perspectives on and attitudes towards EMI. Regarding the methodology, the triangulation of methods was adopted including questionnaires, interviews and observations.

The Toledo Teacher Trainees corpus (TTT): Bridging the gap between students’ narratives and corpus linguistics

In recent decades a few research methods have resorted to L2 learners in order to analyse several aspects aiming at methodological improvements. One of them is corpus linguistics, which has largely contributed to the study of language production from a quantitative perspective. A very different one has been the compilation of perceptions of the L2 learning process using ‘narrative inquiry’ and qualitative methods of analysis. However, scholars have not addressed the combination of both methods. In this proposal we examine their main individual features and offer an interwoven line of research, applying the quantitative approach of corpus linguistics to the genre of language learning narratives. Thus, we present a new corpus of L2 learners’ perceptions and provide detailed information on its structure, compilation and categorisation. The interdisciplinary status of this proposal will enable the exploration of new research possibilities that can ultimately benefit the teaching-learning process.

Salt-İngilizce sınıflarına farklı bir yaklaşım: Türkiye’deki lise öğrencilerinin anadil kullanımı ve Salt-İngilizce sınıflarına yönelik tutumları

This article presents the results of a study on intermediate high school learners’ mother language use and their attitudes towards the only-English use in foreign language learning in Turkey. The participants of the study are 30 students who attend to different state high schools in the North-western region of Turkey. The study aims to investigate (a) learners’ amount of Turkish language use among specific interlocutors, (b) learners’ amount of Turkish language use in specific contexts, (c) learners’ attitudes towards only target language use, and (d) learners’ attitudes towards only target language use in specific contexts. The main data collection instrument is a questionnaire, while a semi-structured interview is conducted to supplement the primary form of data. According to the results of the questionnaire, the learners state that teachers should speak only in English in almost all circumstances, as the learners hold the belief that the maximum exposure to the foreign language is important. However, they also state that the mother tongue should be used during English language instruction when necessary. Such a necessity for the use of mother tongue is felt by learners during grammar explanations and instructions about the details of tests or assignments. Moreover, the results of the semi-structured interviews show that the use of mother tongue is associated with the identity issue from a critical perspective as well as a facilitator of the L2 learning process. Further interpretations about students’ needs to shift to Turkish are also offered.