L2 Learners Process Research Articles

Greater coverage vs. deeper processing? Comparing individual and collaborative processing of teacher feedback

Despite the proliferation of research on how second language (L2) learners engage with feedback on L2 writing in recent years, little is known about how young and low-proficiency L2 learners process teacher feedback. The present study investigated how Chinese lower-secondary school learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) cognitively and behaviourally engaged with teacher feedback in two conditions: individual written languaging and collaborative oral languaging. Eighty-one students (aged 13–14 years, A1–A2 English proficiency) from two classes and two English teachers at a public lower-secondary school in China participated in this study. Comprehensive teacher feedback (focusing on language errors, content, and organization) was provided to students on three writing tasks completed over six weeks. Findings showed that collaborative processing of teacher feedback elicited students’ deeper cognitive processing, drew their attention to issues beyond linguistic errors and encouraged learner autonomy. On the other hand, individual written languaging promoted students’ noticing of teacher feedback in their languaging process, although with a primary focus on grammar and mechanics. Written languaging also enabled students to act on more teacher feedback points in their revisions than the collaborative processing condition. Pedagogical implications from the comparison of the two feedback processing conditions are discussed.

A Review: RC Sentence Processing

The question of whether and how native speakers and L2 learners process speech differently, as well as if transfer implications being available, may be answered by looking at ambiguity decision, one of the basic parsing procedures used in natural language processing. Studies have looked into how L1 and L2 speakers of different languages handle the RC ambiguity differently. In order to address the issues of transfer effects as well as the distinctions between L1 and L2 interpreting, differences between native speakers' and L2 learners' parsing selections, as well as some factors (working memory, animacy, discourse, syntax or semantic information, etc.) used during the experiments in ambiguity resolution, may add an entirely novel viewpoint. Although most of the studies tried to bring a solution with one-stage or two-stage models, the argument of this study is that there are definitely differences between the L1 and L2 processing and ambiguity resolving, and also, universality is impossible. Therefore, there needs to be much more evidences with the same instruments, tasks, and same sources of information conducted to vast amount of participant groups (from different ages, or different backgrounds) in order to reach a certain conclusion to state the reason behind this difference.

Phonological transfer effects in novice learners: A learner's brain detects grammar errors only if the language sounds familiar

AbstractMany aspects of a new language, including grammar rules, can be acquired and accessed within minutes. In the present study, we investigate how initial learners respond when the rules of a novel language are not adhered to. Through spoken word-picture association-learning, tonal and non-tonal speakers were taught artificial words. Along with lexicosemantic content expressed by consonants, the words contained grammatical properties embedded in vowels and tones. Pictures that were mismatched with any of the words’ phonological cues elicited an N400 in tonal learners. Non-tonal learners only produced an N400 when the mismatch was based on a word's vowel or consonants, not the tone. The emergence of the N400 might indicate that error processing in L2 learners (unlike canonical processing) does not initially differentiate between grammar and semantics. Importantly, only errors based on familiar phonological cues evoked a mismatch-related response, highlighting the importance of phonological transfer in initial second language acquisition.

The “semantic P600” in second language processing: When syntax conflicts with semantics

In sentences like “the mouse that chased the cat was hungry”, the syntactically correct interpretation (the mouse chases the cat) is contradicted by semantic and pragmatic knowledge. Previous research has shown that L1 speakers sometimes base sentence interpretation on this type of knowledge (so-called “shallow” or “good-enough” processing). We made use of both behavioural and ERP measurements to investigate whether L2 learners differ from native speakers in the extent to which they engage in “shallow” syntactic processing. German learners of Dutch as well as Dutch native speakers read sentences containing relative clauses (as in the example above) for which the plausible thematic roles were or were not reversed, and made plausibility judgments. The results show that behaviourally, L2 learners had more difficulties than native speakers to discriminate plausible from implausible sentences. In the ERPs, we replicated the previously reported finding of a “semantic P600” for semantic reversal anomalies in native speakers, probably reflecting the effort to resolve the syntax-semantics conflict. In L2 learners, though, this P600 was largely attenuated and surfaced only in those trials that were judged correctly for plausibility. These results generally point at a more prevalent, but not exclusive occurrence of shallow syntactic processing in L2 learners.

Neural Mechanism of Simple Sentence Processing in L2 Learners of English with Different Proficiency

To analyze and explore the neural mechanism of simple sentence processing in L2 learners of English with different proficiency. The paper uses event-related potentials technology to comprehensively examine the processing advantages of relative clauses in L2 learner of English under a variety of life conditions and compares the processing differences of L2 learners with high and low proficiency. There is a LAN-P600 effect in Chinese-English bilinguals with high proficiency when processing similar syntax violations. There is only a P600 effect in the central apex area in bilinguals with low proficiency. For dissimilar syntactic structure violations, there is no significant difference in the neural mechanism for bilinguals with both high and low proficiency. The transfer of syntactic knowledge of mother tongue will exert continuous impact on the processing of L2 simple sentences and the effect of mother tongue transfer on L2 syntactic processing is greater than that of proficiency.

Electrophysiological Correlates of Second-Language Syntactic Processes Are Related to Native and Second Language Distance Regardless of Age of Acquisition.

In the present study, we investigate how early and late L2 learners process L2 grammatical traits that are either present or absent in their native language (L1). Thirteen early (AoA = 4 years old) and 13 late (AoA = 18 years old) Spanish learners of Basque performed a grammatical judgment task on auditory Basque sentences while their event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded. The sentences contained violations of a syntactic property specific to participants' L2, i.e., ergative case, or violations of a syntactic property present in both of the participants' languages, i.e., verb agreement. Two forms of verb agreement were tested: subject agreement, found in participants' L1 and L2, and object agreement, present only in participants' L2. Behaviorally, early bilinguals were more accurate in the judgment task than late L2 learners. Early bilinguals showed native-like ERPs for verb agreement, which differed from the late learners' ERP pattern. Nonetheless, approximation to native-likeness was greater for the subject-verb agreement processing, the type of verb-agreement present in participants' L1, compared to object-verb agreement, the type of verb-agreement present only in participants' L2. For the ergative argument alignment, unique to L2, the two non-native groups showed similar ERP patterns which did not correspond to the natives' ERP pattern. We conclude that non-native syntactic processing approximates native processing for early L2 acquisition and high proficiency levels when the syntactic property is common to the L1 and L2. However, syntactic traits that are not present in the L1 do not rely on native-like processing, despite early AoA and high proficiency.

Second language lexical development and cognitive control: A longitudinal fMRI study

In this paper we report a longitudinal functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study that tested contrasting predictions about the time course of cognitive control in second language (L2) acquisition. We examined the neural correlates of lexical processing in L2 learners twice over the course of one academic year. Specifically, while in the scanner, participants were asked to judge the language membership of unambiguous first and second language words, as well as interlingual homographs. Our ROI and connectivity analyses reveal that with increased exposure to the L2, overall activation in control areas such as the anterior cingulate cortex decrease while connectivity with semantic processing regions such as the middle temporal gyrus increase. These results suggest that cognitive control is more important initially in L2 acquisition, and have significant implications for understanding developmental and neurocognitive models of second language lexical processing.

Grapheme coding in L2: How do L2 learners process new graphemes?

Grapheme coding was examined in French Grade 6 and Grade 8 children and adults who learned English as a second language (L2). In Experiments 1 and 2, three conditions were compared in a letter detection task in L2: (1) simple grapheme (i.e., detect “a” in black); (2) complex language-shared grapheme (i.e., “a” in brain) and (3) complex L2-specific grapheme (i.e., “a” in beach). The data indicated that graphemes in L2 words were functional sub-lexical orthographic units for these L2 learners. Moreover, L2-specific graphemes took longer to process than language-shared complex graphemes. Using the same task, Experiment 3 examined phonological influences by manipulating the cross-language congruency of grapheme-to-phoneme mappings (detect “a” in have [congruent] vs. take [incongruent]). The outcome of this study offers preliminary evidence of graphemic coding during L2 word recognition both at the orthographic and the orthography-to-phonology mapping levels.

Effect of visual support on the processing of multiclausal sentences

Processing morphemic elements is one of the most difficult parts of second language acquisition (DeKeyser, 2005; Larsen-Freeman, 2010). This difficulty gains prominence when second language (L2) learners must perform under time pressure, and difficulties arise in using grammatical knowledge. To solve the problem, the current study used the tenets of multimedia learning theory (Mayer, 2005) to help L2 learners’ reconstruct multiclausal sentences. This theory assumes that limitations in cognitive capacity are reduced when information is given to learners both visually and aurally. Given this assumption, the current study examined whether pictorial information helps L2 learners process morphemic elements in multiclausal sentences presented aurally. Thirty-two learners of Japanese engaged in elicited imitation both with and without pictorial support. The results revealed that the learners performed significantly better with pictorial support, lending support to multimedia learning theory for L2 learners’ processing of morphemic elements. However, a limited effect of pictorial support was found for the processing of an element that the L2 learners had learned recently, and that was in sentence-final position, suggesting that these types of items are difficult to automatize regardless of cognitive support.

Processing empty categories in a second language: When naturalistic exposure fills the (intermediate) gap

An ongoing debate on second language (L2) processing revolves around whether or not L2 learners process syntactic information similarly to monolinguals (L1), and what factors lead to a native-like processing. According to the Shallow Structure Hypothesis (Clahsen & Felser, 2006a), L2 learners’ processing does not include abstract syntactic features, such as intermediate gaps of wh-movement, but relies more on lexical/semantic information. Other researchers have suggested that naturalistic L2 exposure can lead to native-like processing (Dussias, 2003). This study investigates the effect of naturalistic exposure in processing wh-dependencies. Twenty-six advanced Greek learners of L2 English with an average nine years of naturalistic exposure, 30 with classroom exposure, and 30 native speakers of English completed a self-paced reading task with sentences involving intermediate gaps. L2 learners with naturalistic exposure showed evidence of native-like processing of the intermediate gaps, suggesting that linguistic immersion can lead to native-like abstract syntactic processing in the L2.

Using eye-tracking to study the on-line processing of case-marking information among intermediate L2 learners of German

This study uses eye-tracking to examine the processing of case-marking information in ambiguous subject- and object-first wh-questions in German. The position of the lexical verb was also manipulated via verb tense to investigate whether verb location influences how intermediate L2 learners process L2 sentences. Results show that intermediate L2 German learners were sensitive to case-marking information, exhibiting longer processing times on subject-first than object-first sentences, regardless of verb location. German native speakers exhibited the opposite word order preference, with longer processing times on object-first than subject-first sentences, replicating previous findings. These results are discussed in light of current L2 processing research, highlighting how methodological constraints influence researchers' abilities to measure the on-line processing of morphosyntactic information among intermediate L2 learners.

PROCESSING OF THE REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSE VERSUS MAIN VERB AMBIGUITY IN L2 LEARNERS AT DIFFERENT PROFICIENCY LEVELS

This article presents new evidence from offline and online processing of garden-path sentences that are ambiguous between reduced relative clause resolution and main verb resolution. The participants of this study are intermediate and advanced German learners of English who have learned the language in a nonimmersed context. The results show that for second language (L2) learners, there is a dissociation between parsing mechanisms and grammatical knowledge: The learners successfully process the structures in question offline, but the online self-paced reading task shows different patterns for the L2 learners and the native-speaker control group. The results are discussed with regard to shallow processing in L2 learners (Clahsen & Felser, 2006). Because the structures in question differ in English and German, first language (L1) influence is also discussed as an explanation for the findings. The comparison of the three participant groups’ results points to a gradual rather than a fundamental difference between L1 and L2 processing.

Event-related brain potentials and second language learning: syntactic processing in late L2 learners at different L2 proficiency levels

There are several major questions in the literature on late second language (L2) learning and processing. Some of these questions include: Can late L2 learners process an L2 in a native-like way? What is the nature of the differences in L2 processing among L2 learners at different levels of L2 proficiency? In this article, we review studies that addressed these questions using event-related brain potentials (ERPs) in late learners and that focused on syntactic processing. ERPs provide an on-line, millisecond-by-millisecond record of the brain’s electrical activity during cognitive processing. ERP measures can thus provide valuable information on the timing and degree of neural activation as language processing (here: syntactic processing in L2) unfolds over time. After discussing the use of ERPs for the study of L2 learning and processing, we review electrophysiological studies on syntactic and morphosyntactic processing in late L2 learners with different levels of L2 proficiency. The currently available evidence indicates that patterns of neural activity in the brain during syntactic and morphosyntactic processing can be modulated by various, possibly interrelated, factors including the similarity or dissimilarity of syntactic structures in L2 and L1, the exact nature of the syntactic structure L2 learners seek to comprehend and the concomitant expectancies they can generate with regard to violations in this structure, and the L2 learners’ level of L2 proficiency. Together these studies show that ERPs can successfully elucidate subtle differences in syntactic processing between L2 learners and native speakers, and among L2 learners at different levels of L2 proficiency, which are difficult to detect or that might have remained undetected with behavioural measures.

Differences or fundamental differences?

In his paper, Meisel discusses the differences between (bilingual) L1 ((2)L1), child L2 (cL2), and adult L2 (aL2) acquisition. He claims that both types of L2 acquisition are fundamentally different from (monolingual as well as bilingual) L1 acquisition. He argues that these fundamental differences are due to neuronal maturation and that they concern in particular the acquisition of morphosyntax. Meisel presents both neurological and linguistic evidence suggesting that the age of approximately 3;7 till 4 years is critical such that children who acquire a language after the age of acquisition (AoA) of 4 should in general be classified as cL2 learners, whereas children that start learning one (or several) languages before the AoA of 4 are expected to behave like L1 acquirers. More specifically, Meisel postulates that maturational changes in the course of childhood explain why L1 and L2 acquisition proceed in different ways. He reviews neuroimaging studies that show that L2 learners process syntactically deviant sentences differently from native speakers (Weber-Fox & Neville 1999). The results of these studies suggest that L2 learners show a more diffuse spatial distribution of activation patterns as well as increased activation in the right hemisphere. According to Weber-Fox & Neville (1999), the critical age ranges from which on these changes appear lie around the age of four and the age of seven. Meisel takes this as evidence that there are qualitative changes in the acquisition process around these two age ranges. To further pinpoint the areas of grammar where L2 acquisition might be fundamentally different from L1, Meisel considers linguistic evidence