L2 Context Research Articles

Which factors predict teachers’ evaluation of the difficulty and usefulness of phrasal verbs in L2 contexts?

Abstract Research examining teachers’ cognition of lexical items has flourished in the past few years. However, most of these studies focused on individual words rather than formulaic sequences. The present study aims to fill this gap through eliciting teachers’ evaluation of one type of formulaic sequences: phrasal verbs (PVs). The aim is to examine factors (frequency, opacity, and learners’ receptive and productive knowledge) that might predict teachers’ evaluation of the difficulty and usefulness of 100 PV senses. For that purpose, a survey was administered to 174 teachers. Results of generalized mixed-effects modelling showed that teachers’ assessment of both the usefulness and difficulty of PVs was predicted by sense-specific corpus frequency and receptive knowledge of these PV senses. Moreover, difficulty ratings were additionally affected by opacity and productive knowledge of PVs. We discuss these findings in relation to previous research on L2 PV knowledge and implications for L2 teaching practice.

Exploring emoji usage in intercultural CMC: Insights from Colombian and Argentinian learners of German

Abstract This study investigates the use of emojis in Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) among Colombian and Argentinian learners of German. Recent research demonstrates that emojis serve multiple functions, including expressing reactions to previous statements and modulating the tone of assertions. Beyond the illocutionary domain, where they help articulate speech acts, emojis facilitate discourse by managing conversation openings and closings. They also signify informality in the stylistic domain and guide the social intent of conversations. While these findings are insightful, they primarily reflect interactions among speakers sharing the same first language (L1) and cultural background. The dynamics of emoji use in a second language (L2) and intercultural settings remain underexplored. To address this gap, this study analyzed a corpus of WhatsApp messages exchanged during a virtual interaction between 24 Colombian and Argentinian learners of German. The results reveal that the use of emojis among L2 speakers largely mirrors their use in L1 contexts, suggesting a strong transferability of their pragmatic, discursive, and stylistic functions. Additionally, this study identifies an extra function in the illocutionary domain, where emojis help signal sociality rights and obligations, thereby maintaining positive interpersonal rapport. Furthermore, the performance of national identities emerged as a unique function of emojis in intercultural communication, supporting the idea of a universal component in emoji use. These findings contribute to our understanding of how emojis operate in L2 and intercultural settings, highlighting their role in facilitating effective digital communication across linguistic and cultural boundaries. The consistent use of emojis by participants from different cultural backgrounds suggests that emojis can act as universal symbols, bridging cultural and linguistic gaps while also allowing for the expression of unique social identities.

L2 Learners’ Perspectives on Data-Driven Learning for Identifying Properties of Near-Synonymous Words: A Convergent Mixed-Methods Study

This study examines second language (L2) learners’ perspectives regarding the affordances and challenges of using the Data-Driven Learning (DDL) to identify the properties of near-synonymous words. Employing a convergent mixed-method design, this study deciphers the perceptions of 40 undergraduate L2 learners majoring in English language teaching. After an initial identification of the learners’ vocabulary levels, the experienced benefits and barriers associated with carrying out experiential tasks were elicited via questionnaire data and open-ended survey questions. Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were revealed and thematic analyses of the responses to the survey questions were documented. The results indicate that completing tasks through the corpus was found to enhance their knowledge of collocations. Integrating corpus tasks into YouGlish (an online practice tool for authentic spoken English in context) was found to increase their awareness of the contextual properties of words. The identification of condensed language exposure, lexical inference, and elicitation of flexible and context-specific patterns were reported to be beneficial. Acknowledging these benefits, gaining familiarity with the corpus interface, encountering limited access to search queries, and analyzing large amounts of concordance lines posed challenges for learners. This research presents the implementation of the DDL supported by experiential learning, contextually rich input, and inductive reasoning tasks in vocabulary learning by further offering instructional implications in L2 contexts.

A cross‐linguistic approach to investigating metacognitive regulation in writing among Chinese EFL learners: Insights for its trait/state distinction

AbstractMetacognitive regulation refers to learners’ ability to use a repertoire of metacognitive strategies to guide, observe, and manage thoughts, actions, and emotions in learning activities. It has been widely acknowledged as a significant predictor of language learning success, including writing. However, this line of research has been conducted in a single language context, and the interactions across L1 and L2 contexts have received insufficient scholarly attention. Situated in mainland China, we raise an innovative attempt to investigate metacognitive strategies in writing with a cross‐linguistic approach, thus illuminating the conceptualization of metacognitive regulation by testing its trait/state distinction. A group of 502 university students from different disciplinary majors were recruited to report their metacognitive strategy use in L1 and L2 task‐situated writing by filling in the assigned post‐task questionnaires. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) on the two questionnaire datasets provided empirical evidence for the cross‐language generalizability of metacognitive regulation in writing with the identified measurement invariance of the factor structure between L1 and L2 contexts, indicating its trait facet. However, the latent mean comparison results revealed that the actual usage frequency of metacognitive strategies scored significantly higher in L1 writing than in L2 writing, suggesting the state facet. These results are discussed extensively in this study to inform relevant theories and pedagogical activities.

Establishing recipiency in divergent L2 contexts of classroom interaction: A conversation analysis

Establishing recipiency, an indispensable ingredient and manifestation of sustaining intersubjectivity, constitutes the continuous monitoring of an ongoing turn in an interaction. The present study intended to describe how interactants attending a freshman common course in an Ethiopian university elicit and display recipiency in instances of Divergent L2 contexts exhibiting DIUs. Naturally occurring video-recorded classroom interactions of the purposively selected interactants have been analyzed in light of the Conversation Analytic framework to show how interactants elicit and display recipiency. By deploying reactive tokens, incipient speakers negotiate their rights to shape and reshape trajectories of an ongoing thereby displaying recipiency. This contributes to a better understanding of how interactures, in this case the establishment of intersubjectivity and L2 contexts, interplay and unfold in moments of DIUs. Also, viewing interactants as incipient speakers, and thereby articulating turns in view of recipients is a condition for sustaining intersubjectivity through active engagement. This requires upholding unwavering belief about recipients’ stake in an interactional exchange. Practically, being attentive to recipients' states in the different trajectories of interactional development, especially, in moments of divergent L2 contexts that exhibit DIUs, would be illuminating. This is because the use of resources to elicit and display recipiency and thereby consider incipient speakers' levels of recipiency, on the part of floor-holding speaker, would enhance possibilities for intersubjectivity.

AN INVESTIGATION INTO SELF-EFFICACY, ANXIETY, AND L2 LISTENING COMPREHENSION: THE MEDIATION OF METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS

ABSTRACT English holds a dominant position in the L2 context, particularly for programs aimed at developing composite English skills. Despite this, the influence of individual differences on listening comprehension within the business English framework remains underexplored. Therefore, this study investigates the structural relationships among second language (L2) listening anxiety, L2 listening self-efficacy, and English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) listening comprehension, considering metacognitive awareness as a potential mediating factor. Data were collected through questionnaires from 342 Chinese undergraduates enrolled in business English programs. Using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with a bootstrapping approach, the results demonstrated that both L2 listening anxiety and self-efficacy exert direct and indirect effects on EFL listening comprehension, mediated by metacognitive awareness. These results offer valuable insights for theoretical understanding and practical approaches to enhancing L2 listening competencies in business English settings.

Grammatical understanding predicts reading comprehension in secondary-level students: insights from a Finnish national survey

A lot of research into the relationship between explicit grammatical understanding and literacy development in L1 contexts has focused on writing. A lot less is known, however, about the interconnectedness of explicit grammatical understanding and reading. This study investigated the relationship between grammatical understanding and reading comprehension in Finnish 9th grade students. Using national assessment data (N = 6,044) and multilevel quantitative analyses, the study found that explicit grammatical understanding accounted for a significant portion of the variance in reading skills, even after controlling for various background factors such as school, family socioeconomic status, homework and book reading habits, attitudes towards studying L1, and writing ability. The findings suggest, without implying causality, that understanding language structure and making explicit metalinguistic observations are closely connected to reading comprehension. The study encourages further research on the benefits of explicit grammar teaching for reading comprehension using different study designs. Additionally, it highlights the need to investigate how grammar instruction can be linked to reading, as well as explore the effectiveness of such instruction in different educational and linguistic contexts.

A Survey on Primary Students’ Attitude toward Teachers’ Use of Mother Tongue in English Classrooms at Primary Schools in Binh Duong

It is a controversial issue whether to use or not to use mother language in teaching English in primary classrooms. The purpose of this research paper is to investigate the reality of speaking Vietnamese in English classrooms in several primary schools in Binh Duong province. 23 primary students in Binh Duong were asked to answer a list of questions to learn about their attitude toward L1 in L2 lessons. It turned out that nearly 70% of teachers at primary schools in Binh Duong usually used L1 in their L2 classes to explain new words and difficult terms. The majority of primary students preferred L1 use and had a positive attitude toward teachers’ use of Vietnamese when appropriate use of L1 to support and facilitate EFL classroom. We recommend that the teacher’s intensity of using L1 in L2 context should be taken into consideration in accordance to the students’ proficiency.

“I have known….” A Corpus-driven Study of Personal Pronouns in Letters of Recommendation in an L2 Context

In recent times, there has been an upsurge of scholarly attention on hitherto occluded genres such as the Letter of Recommendation (LoR). Although several studies have been conducted on the LoR, studies on lexico-grammatical features are rare. This study, therefore, adopts a corpus-driven approach to examine the use of personal pronouns (PPs) in LoRs written by Ghanaian academics. A specialized corpus of LoR, totalling approximately twenty thousand (20, 000) running words was created for this study. The concordance tool in AntConc (v. 3.2.4.) was employed to search for all instances of PPs in the corpus. The concordance lines were manually examined to determine the referents of the PPs. The study revealed the diversity of PP resources in LoRs. It was also found that the PPs were mainly recommender-oriented, recommendee-oriented, or requester-oriented, culminating in a proposed model of discourse-internal and external participants in LoRs. Again, the study revealed that LoR is typified by singular PPs, reflecting the fact that it is mainly authored by an individual for an individual. The findings have implications for the pragmatics of PPs and the scholarship on LoR. It is thus recommended that an intercultural study of LoR be undertaken to establish variations in the use of personal pronouns. Keywords: Corpus Linguistics, L2 Context, Letter of recommendation, English for Specific Purposes

Examining metacognitive strategy use in L1 and L2 task-situated writing: effects, transferability, and cross-language facilitation

Despite the widely recognized importance of metacognition in language learning, relatively few empirical studies have investigated the role of metacognitive strategies with a cross-linguistic perspective. Drawing on the mixed-method design combining questionnaire and interview data, this study systematically investigated the effects, the transfer potential, and the cross-language facilitation of metacognitive strategies between L1 and L2 contexts. Structural equation modelling (SEM) and multigroup analysis results revealed that metacognitive strategies afforded a more prominent predictive role in English (L2) writing than in Chinese (L1) writing; such strategy use transferred between the two writing contexts, which kept invariant between lower- and higher- L2 proficiency groups and between English and non-English major groups; and there was a cross-language facilitation effect of L1 writing metacognitive strategies on L2 writing performance via the mediation of L2 writing metacognitive strategies. Complementary to the quantitative results, the qualitative interview data was analyzed to provide deep insights into the participating students’ metacognitive strategy use in the two task-situated writing. Findings are extensively discussed to offer theoretical and pedagogical implications in this domain.

L1 as a Tool for Dialogic Discourse in an ESL Classroom during Pre-Writing Stage

This descriptive-qualitative study investigated L1 functions in the pre-writing stage in the L2 context. It explored how L1 in the pre-writing stage built dialogic engagement as a form of empowerment necessary to engage in L2 writing. Grade 8 students conducted community interviews to gather local and national issues needed to elicit small group pre-writing discussions. Guided by the sociocultural theory of learning by Vygotsky and the dialogic model of Alexander (2010), results revealed that the speakers' L1 has significant roles in L2 writing. These identified classroom L1-supported discourses further build dialogic engagement among the participants, showing their empowered roles through problem-posing, referencing, reflecting, and problem-solving. Such L1-dialogic engagement further allows learners to penetrate social realities, which helps them to build critical awareness of their society. Data open implications for teaching English, specifically promoting critical language pedagogy in second language learning.

Listener perceptions of L1 speech in L2 and L3 fluency assessment contexts: a qualitative approach

Studies on listeners’ perceptions of speech fluency have typically focused on numeric L2 fluency assessments and rarely addressed individual differences in L1 speech fluency qualitatively. The objective of the present study was to examine how listeners attend to speakers’ L1 speech when assessing the speakers’ L2 and L3 fluency. In the study, 37 listeners were presented with freely produced L1 Finnish, L2 English (Experiment I), and L3 Swedish (Experiment II) speech by Finnish-speaking and Finnish–Swedish bilingual speakers (N=30). The listeners first listened to the speakers’ L1 Finnish speech before assessing their target language fluency and then commented on how hearing the L1 speech samples affected their ratings. A qualitative analysis focusing on the listeners’ comments revealed that listeners attend to both temporal and non-fluency related features in L1 speech when assessing target language fluency, but there were clear individual differences across listeners’ intuitive approaches to L1 speech.

Evaluating NLP models with written and spoken L2 samples

The use of natural language processing tools such as part-of-speech taggers and syntactic parsers are increasingly being used in studies of second language (L2) proficiency and development. However, relatively little work has focused on reporting on the accuracy of these tools or optimizing their performance in L2 contexts. While some studies reference the published overall accuracy of a particular tool or include a small-scale accuracy analysis, very few (if any) studies provide a comprehensive account of the performance of taggers and parsers across a range of written and spoken registers. In this study, we provide a large-scale accuracy analysis of popular taggers and parsers across L1 and L2 written and spoken texts, both when default and L2-optimized models are used. Accuracy is examined both at the feature level (e.g., identifying adjective-noun relationships) and the text level (e.g., mean mutualinformation scores). The results highlight the strength and weaknesses of these tools.

Modeling the consequences of an L1 grammar for L2 production: simulations, variation, and predictions

IntroductionThis paper presents a constraint-based grammar of Mandarin low vowel + nasal coda (loVN) sequences first as acquired by L1 learners, and then as transferred to L2 English.MethodsWe simulate phonological learning in Harmonic Grammar using a gradual, error-driven GLA learner, drawing on evidence from L1 Mandarin speakers' perceptual data to support our initial state assumptions. We then compare our simulation results with L2 English production (both anecdotal and ultrasound data), as well as evidence from Mandarin loanword phonology.ResultsOur results align with multiple patterns in the previous empirical literature, including an asymmetry among surface repairs for VN sequences, and we show how these emerge from our assumptions about both the L1 Mandarin grammar and the grammar's evaluation method (i.e., weighted constraints).DiscussionWe discuss the extent to which these results derive from our somewhat novel analysis of place contrasts in L1 Mandarin, and the variability in loVN outputs that we encode directly into the L1 grammar, which are then transferred to the L2 context. Ultimately we discuss how this type of modeling can make falsifiable predictions about phonological development, in both L1 and L2 contexts.

Language ideologies in metaphors: Exploring L2 Saudi students’ conceptualization of language mixing as a language practice

This qualitative study aimed to examine the embedded language ideologies within L2 Saudi students’ metaphorical texts to discover their ideological perspectives about language mixing. Using language ideology as a lens of analysis, this study examined 74 metaphorical texts written by undergraduate students to determine their language ideologies. The results revealed that the students held multiple and contradictory language ideologies about language mixing. Students’ language ideologies were found to be an orientation along a language ideological continuum with one end representing the ideology of language mixing as a resource and the other reflecting the ideology of language mixing as a challenge. Some students’ language ideologies may fall somewhere in the middle of this continuum since they expressed conflicting language ideologies, perceiving language mixing as both a valuable resource and a potential challenge. Using language ideologies as a lens to evaluate students' metaphorical texts allowed the different language ideas hidden within the three basic language ideologies to be revealed. In addition, the study found that the students employed different metaphors to conceptualize language mixing, covering a wide range of areas such as food, drinks, objects, places and activities. The findings suggested that Saudi students’ metaphors and language ideologies are intertwined and mutually influence each other. This study recommends that teachers use conceptual metaphors as a reflective tool to unveil L2 students’ perspectives on academic activities and calls for further research on conceptual metaphors and language ideologies in L2 contexts.

Writing in L2 Greek: Exploring the effect of L2 proficiency and learning context on complexity, accuracy, and fluency

Complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) have been proposed as measures of L2 performance and are fundamental variables of written analysis. Empirical studies have shown how written production is developed across proficiency levels and have highlighted the impact of language learning context (second versus foreign) on such development. Despite research that analyzes L2 written production in relation to L2 proficiency or L2 context, few studies examine both in combination. This study explores the role of proficiency and learning context in the written production of L2 Modern Greek learners. Three hundred twenty-four (N = 324) L2 Modern Greek learners of different proficiency levels (A2 to C1) studying in two different learning contexts (second: Greece versus foreign: Spain) carried out a written task (opinion essay). The results showed that two indices of the length of production (mean length of sentence and clause), one index of subordination (dependent clauses per clause), accuracy, and fluency were good indicators of proficiency level. Also, learning context affected the length of production, sentence complexity, and subordination. While differences were observed between the two settings, no superiority of one context over the other was found. Significant interaction effects between context and proficiency were detected in syntactic complexity (coordination) and fluency.

A scoping review of willingness to communicate in language education: premises to doubt, lessons to learn, and future research questions to examine

The assessment encompasses essential concepts and their related measures about the information gathered. The conceptualization within a study becomes imperative to ascertain the corresponding variables and establish appropriate methodologies for their measurement. The willingness to communicate (WTC) concept, an individual’s engagement in communication when given the opportunity, has become a crucial point in second language (L2) learning due to language use and communication. While studies have rendered valuable insights into the differing presentations of L1 WTC and L2 WTC, the subject remains largely unexplored concerning the conceptualization and assessment of L2 WTC in the digital settings and English as a foreign language (EFL) context. The scoping review can aid in advancing our knowledge in this area of investigation by exploring the scope of available research literature on a topic by identifying key concepts and sources of evidence as well as identifying strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in the research that inform practice in the field, deepen assessors’ knowledge in the field, and highlight areas that require further inquiry. This study conducted a five-stage scoping review, including (1) establishing the scoping review questions, (2) identifying the related research, (3) determining the inclusion criteria of studies, (4) outlining the data, and (5) analyzing and reporting the results. Six databases, ERIC (ProQuest), APA PsycINFO, JSTORE, Elsevier (Scopus), Web of Science Core Collection, and Semantic Scholar, were used for scoping data. Forty-seven studies were included in the final analysis. The results discuss the WTC conceptualizations and their directions in L1, L2, and EFL contexts. Furthermore, the results discuss the conceptualization of classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC, operationalization of WTC in digital and EFL contexts, methodological approaches applied for evaluating WTC, the evaluation of teachers’ status in WTC conceptualization, and future directions. The discussions would prove useful in expanding our understanding of how to act toward L2 WTC and the assessment knowledge. Moreover, they would have significant implications for teachers, researchers, assessors, and practitioners in this field. Further, we hope this paper sparks renewed interest in L2 WTC by generating new ideas for researchers to conduct further research.

Spanish as a resource in the acquisition of English as a second language

The use of the mother tongue in foreign language lessons has always generated a wide debate on whether the use of L1 prevents students from learning a L2. This research shows what teachers of English as L2 in Spain think about this topic. First, we review the reasons to exclude the use of Spanish, as well as the reasons for its inclusion. This approach includes linguistic, social, and cultural factors intrinsic to the teaching/learning process. Information is collected using a mixed method approach. On the one hand, a questionnaire is designed to identify patterns and trends regarding the use of Spanish in the English classroom considering factual, behavioural, and attitudinal data. Each section is linked to research objectives. On the other, three specific qualitative methods are used: personal interviews, small focus group discussions and extension written narratives, where 12 questions are composed as a basis for the realisation of these three methods. The results of the study suggest that a prudent and judicious use of Spanish does not prevent or hinder the development of English learning in students. On the contrary, in many cases, it facilitates it since it provides the teacher with a powerful pedagogical resource. The study posits that the judicious employment of Spanish within the classroom setting yields positive outcomes and advocates for increased flexibility in its utilisation. However, it simultaneously points to the imperative that this flexibility should not detract from the primary objective of English language acquisition. This study has theoretical and practical implications in the design of formation syllabi for in-service and future teachers of L2 in L1 contexts.

Using Digital Portfolios to Develop Students’ Writing: A Practical Guide for Language Teachers. Lam, R., & Moorhouse, B., L. (2022) Abingdon, Routledge, 167 pages, ISBN: 978-1-032-28240-4

The uses of e-portfolios in L2 education and research have recently increased given their reflective and process-oriented nature. Many scholars have begun using e-portfolios to collect their data in various aspects of L2 teaching and learning. Considering the prominence of technologies and e-portfolios in teaching L2 writing, a recent and influential book has been published by Routledge titled “Using Digital Portfolios to Develop Students’ Writing: A Practical Guide for Language Teachers”. It presents the theoretical underpinnings of e-portfolio and the way its application in L2 contexts can boost the quality of teaching and learning English writing skills.

L2 motivation in shadow education: analysing students’ L2 learning experience in online English private tutoring

ABSTRACT With a focus on the neglected ‘L2 learning experience’ component in Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), this study investigated secondary students’ L2 motivation in the context of online English private tutoring (EPT). Through narrative inquiry, students narrated their EPT experience online and reflected on it in comparison with that in the face-to-face environment. Through an initial questionnaire, in-depth interviews and follow-up conversations with 12 senior secondary students in Hong Kong, the study revealed the participants’ generally negative L2 learning experience in online EPT. This negativity stemmed from constant distractions and poor concentration, limited interaction with the tutor and peers and insufficient learning support in the online environment. These experiences disengaged and demotivated the students in the language learning process. The findings contribute to our understanding of the L2 learning experience component in L2MSS and the impact of L2 contexts on students’ L2 motivation. The study indicates that, for our participants, there are some irreplaceable elements in face-to-face tutoring (e.g. physical proximity, facial expressions), lack of which affected students’ engagement and motivation. This highlights the importance of researchers and practitioners in language education taking into account learners’ situated contexts and immediate learning environment when conducting relevant studies on L2 motivation.