L2 Classes Research Articles

Reviewing the role of positive classroom climate in improving English as a foreign language students' social interactions in the online classroom.

The teacher and learners are cooperatively involved in the creation of a positive climate in an L2 class. In the online language learning environment today, teachers can make the best use of technology, multimedia learning, and accessibility of learners to create a supportive and effective climate. In this productive climate, the teacher and learners can have multiple forms of social interaction which can improve language learners' communicative skills. Not only can the teacher expect better learning outcomes, but s/he can also ensure students' wholehearted attendance in, attention to, and participation in class activities. A positive class climate and the consequent better social interactions can also enhance learners' affective well-being. For example, higher self-esteem leads to lower levels of anxiety and better emotional health. This study aims to review the contribution of a positive classroom climate to the improvement of students' social interaction in the online L2 classroom. To do this, the findings of the relevant studies have been presented and their implications for the construction of a positive online L2 classroom climate have been provided. Suggestions are made on how to help teachers create a positive climate in online L2 classes and how to pave the way for more effective social interactions between teachers and students and among students. Also, implications are provided for L2 teachers, researchers, and trainers, especially in the post-pandemic era.

Exploring the Perspectives of EFL Instructors toward the Employment of L1 in EFL Reading Classes

In recent years, numerous studies have been concerned with evaluating the effectiveness of using L1 in EFL contexts. Nevertheless, there is no consensus so far on the usefulness of the use of L1 in EFL contexts. More specifically, there is a wide disagreement between scholars and researchers regarding the use of Arabic as an L1 in EFL contexts given the significant linguistic differences between Arabic and English. In light of this argument, this study is concerned with evaluating the effectiveness and usefulness of the use of L1 in EFL classes in the Saudi universities of the instructors’ perspective. Semi- structured interviews were conducted with twelve EFL instructors in four Saudi universities. Results indicated that the majority of the participants indicated that the integration of L1 in EFL classes can be usefully used to achieve a proper classroom discipline and keep the structure of the classroom activities in a way that makes the realization of the target outcomes possible. They also stressed that L1 can be used to help EFL learners develop their English language skills. They also indicated that the use of Arabic in EFL classes helps establish a good relationship with the instructor and reduces students’ stress and anxiety. It can be finally concluded that the use of Arabic serves as a useful teaching and learning tool in EFL contexts.

Students' attitudes towards teacher's use of Vietnamese in EFL classrooms at Vietnam National University Hanoi, International School

The role of L1 in L2 classrooms has without any doubt been the hot topic of debates and discussions. In particular, some linguists and educators do not support the use of L1 in teaching L2, whereas others emphasize the importance of L1 in L2 classes. Although studies have been done on both teachers’ and students’ attitudes toward L1 use in the L2 classroom, it still remains the question of when and how L1 can become an effective supporting tool for L2. The goal of this research is to present the results on the functionality of L1 (Vietnamese language) in L2 (EFL) classrooms under students’ perspectives. A survey questionnaire was designed to deliver to participants for the study: 126 students at the intermediate level of the General English program at Vietnam National University Hanoi, International School (VNU-IS). The study's findings indicated that the VNU-IS student participants were satisfied with their teacher’s use of L1. L1 usage was also discovered to be preferred for the following purposes: language functionality, managerial functionality, effective functionality, and social functionality. Among them, language functionality is most favored by VNU-IS students. The results also revealed that Vietnamese should be considered as a backup rather than a barrier for Vietnamese teachers.

Vietnamese EFL learners’ perspectives on online extensive reading during emergency remote L2 teaching

Previous research has shown a range of benefits of extensive reading for second or foreign language (L2) learning, as well as learners’ positive attitudes towards extensive reading. However, during emergency remote teaching around the globe as a consequence of the Covid-19 pandemic, where all L2 classes have been moved online, little research has investigated online extensive reading as well as learners’ perspectives on this activity. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate Vietnamese EFL learners’ perspectives on online extensive reading during emergency remote L2 teaching amidst the Covid-19 pandemic. Eighty-seven Vietnamese EFL learners at a local university participated in the study. They were involved in one online extensive reading over 12 weeks. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with the participants. The results showed that all the learners had positive attitudes towards online extensive reading during emergency remote L2 teaching. Learners reported enjoying the variety of topics and genres found in online extensive reading, the suitability of the texts for their L2 proficiency, the usefulness of the program for enhancing their L2 competence as well as general knowledge, along with the convenience that the program offers. Learners also suggested several improvements in the website interface and the addition of more topics, genres, and quizzes.

Unpacking boredom factors of Chinese foreign language major students in translation classes: A sequential mixed methods study.

Though largely ignored by educators and researchers, boredom, an aversive emotion, is the hurdle for many translation learners to be professional. It is all the more important to unpack the boredom factors of Chinese foreign language major students in translation classes, which will serve in promoting students’ engagement in L2 classes and translator cultivation. By using a sequential mixed approach, this study conducted a thematic analysis and built a structural equation model. Quantitative data were gleaned from 483 foreign major college students in China and qualitative data were selected from students (N = 15) of 7 universities through snowball sampling. Initially, the first-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) verified the adapted questionnaire and the second-order CFA finds each factor’s contribution. Then, the thematic analysis gives support to the empirical findings. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed that task-based boredom is the most routinely experienced boredom. Moreover, two major sources of boredom in translation classes are found, including task-based boredom and teacher-related boredom. It is suggested that teachers should improve their classes and use more interesting and engaging materials and tasks with the proper level of difficulty. The finding can help educators to identify the major boredom in the translation class and help potential professional translators to grow. Future studies will also be facilitated by the present study to find approaches to tackle these boredom sources.

Teacher agency in perceiving affordances and constraints of videoconferencing technology: Teaching primary school students online

Despite some evidence in the literature on the evolving and emergent nature of technological affordances, the role of teacher agency in noticing, selecting, and utilizing those affordances in the context of L2 online teaching has not been fully explored. In addition, while previous research on technological affordances has focused on adult students, little has been known about how teacher agency is manifested in relation to ICT affordances when teaching young learners in large-sized L2 classes. Thus the present study, adopting the ecological perspective on teacher agency and affordance, aims to investigate how primary school English teachers enacted and exerted their teacher agency in response to pedagogical challenges by exploring and exploiting the pedagogical affordances of a synchronous videoconferencing tool. Qualitative data collected from semi-structured interviews with 10 English teachers in South Korea reflected that their teacher agency guided by their pedagogical beliefs contributed to evolving ICT affordances for L2 online teaching, responding to institutional expectations and technological constraints. The findings also showed that the characteristics of young English learners mediated their agency enactment in ways that teachers noticed technology affordances and constraints while addressing pedagogical issues regarding teaching young learners. Academic implications from the perspective of teacher agency are discussed.

Corrective Feedback to Second Language Learners of American Sign Language

This study examined the corrective feedback Deaf teachers used to target handshape, movement, and place-of-articulation errors in introductory American Sign Language (ASL) classes for hearing students. Although feedback is underresearched in bimodal second language (M2-L2) pedagogy, there is some evidence that teacher practices may differ from those observed in spoken L2 classes, notably in the more frequent use of direct corrections. Willoughby et al.'s (2015) study of Auslan (Australian Sign Language) reports that the teachers' preference for this type of correction stemmed from beliefs about the challenges of learning signed language phonology. Spoken L2 research suggests that a reliance on this type of feedback may limit students' opportunities to learn from their errors, as the nontarget form is corrected for the student and is not often followed by student "repair" of the original error (Panova and Lyster 2002). As student response to teacher feedback was not examined in Willoughby et al.'s (2015) study, we do not know if M2-L2 students show similar behavior. The current study was designed to address this issue, examining both teacher feedback practices and student responses to feedback.

Gamification as a Course Organizing Principle in Second Language Curricula

Gamification within courses has offered great opportunities for students to engage further into the course material. Traditionally, gamification is used with one or two elements of a course. This study investigated full course gamification of a Second Language (L2) classroom, which has not been explored heavily within research. The researchers used a constructivist grounded theory methodology to deepen the understanding of the student perception and possible impact of a full course gamification. Course curriculum, including textbook and assignments, remained the same for the 71 students enrolled in the L2 classes. The pedagogical approach to the course organization was gamified. Participants responded to open-ended questionnaires at the beginning and end of the course. The data from the questionnaire was coded line by line to deduce categories and then themes. Overall, students experienced higher levels of mastery learning, engagement, motivation, and lower levels of stress. This study demonstrates successful implementation of gamification as a course organizing principle, which should continue to be explored in future research.

The Effect of Computer-Mediated Feedback on L2 Accuracy. Does the Difference in Learners’ Perceptual Style Moderate the Effectiveness of the Feedback?

Computer-mediated feedback (CMF) has recently gained attention in L2 (second language) classes because it offers numerous advantages, such as flexibility and timesaving. However, not much is known about how it affects the accuracy of L2 learners and how the mediating variables, such as learners’ preferred perceptual style, influences the efficacy of CMF. Therefore, the present study was conducted to examine how two types of CMF (audio-based and text-based) affect the accuracy of L2 learners on the past perfect tense and whether aligning CMF types with the learners’ preferred perceptual style (auditory/read/write) mediates its efficacy. One hundred and twenty first semester students with English as a second language (ESL), with a mean age of 20 were recruited for the current study. These students were divided into two treatment groups (audio-based and text-based) and a control group based on their preferred perceptual style (auditory/read/write). The learners in the treatment groups were given three treatment sessions, one each week, where they received CMF either in the audio-based form or text-based form on their narrative writing texts. Subsequently, the effectiveness of the CMF was tested employing two testing instruments: writing task and oral production task. The writing task was a narrative text reconstruction that required the participants to use past perfect tense. Similarly, the oral production task was a dialogue activity that required the use of past perfect tense. The results indicated that both CMF types improved the accuracy of the past perfect tense, with the audio-based CMF found to be more effective. The study also demonstrated that CMF was more effective when aligned with the learners’ preferred perceptual style.

To what extent are foreign language anxiety and foreign language enjoyment related to L2 fluency? An investigation of task-specific emotions and breakdown and speed fluency in an oral task

The relationship between foreign language anxiety (FLA) and foreign language enjoyment (FLE) experienced during a creative collaborative oral English-as-a-foreign-language task, and the relationships between FLE/FLA and task speech fluency were investigated. The task was performed by mid-intermediate/high-intermediate English learners ( N = 43) in groups and culminated in 2-minute monologues by every participant, the breakdown (the ratio and length of mid- and end-AS unit pauses) and speed (mean length of run, articulation rate, and phonation time ratio) utterance fluency of which was measured. The relationship between FLA and FLE fluctuated between task parts, form negligible to medium-strong negative. There were numerous negative links between FLA and fluency, and less numerous positive links between FLE and fluency of various strength. These lend support to earlier claims that FLA is associated with impaired second language (L2) outcomes and positive emotions may facilitate L2 learning/performance. The links between fluency and FLA and FLE experienced during collaborative L2 processing/practice preceding the monologue the fluency of which was examined were more frequent and stronger than links with the emotions during the monologue, pointing to the possible depletion and improvement of L2 processing caused respectively by FLA and FLE especially during this stage. The emotions were linked especially with fluency indices associated with speech formulation/encoding. In regression analyses, proficiency was the strongest predictor of fluency, followed by much weaker predictive power FLA and then FLE, which may be related to participants’ relatively high L2 advancement. The results imply that L2 teachers exploit the emotional impact of learning tasks and attend to the emotional atmosphere of L2 classes, especially their enjoyability.

The Use of Social Networks in L2 Instruction: Discussing its Opportunities and Obstacles

This article presents a discussion and analysis on the implementation of social networks to support the learning of a second language (L2) in the field of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL); an area that has regained especial significance in the post pandemic era. Through a cumulative case study report that compares and contrasts several research studies carried out at different times, this article first brings to discussion the strengths that social networks offer for their implementation in L2 instruction. To continue the discussion, the issues of teachers’ CALL training and access are presented as weaknesses for a successful implementation of social networks in the L2 instruction. It is argued that social networks cannot work as effective tools for this purpose without the guidance of a properly trained instructor. Nevertheless, attaining such an ideal condition is challenging considering the problems that might emerge during its implementation. Although it is common that language teachers to some extent include this resource for their L2 classes, more research needs to be done to produce literature that sheds light on the aspects that need to be worked on to take real advantage of this type of technology.

Academic Writing with Corpora: A Resource Book for Data-Driven Learning (Book review)

Data-driven Learning (DDL), generally defined as the use of corpora for L2 language learning and teaching, has been touted, both theoretically and empirically, to be a promising pedagogical approach (see e.g., Boulton & Cobb’s, 2017 meta-analysis); however, its use is still confined both geographically and contextually. Despite calls for endeavours to normalise corpus-based pedagogy in L2 classes, it is often acknowledged that a limitation of DDL is that it has not made serious inroads into the L2 classroom due to the lack of appropriate materials introducing teachers and learners to corpus-based learning. Nevertheless, efforts have been made to resolve this issue, and Academic Writing with Corpora: A Resource Book for Data-Driven Learning is a step in this direction. [First paragraph of review]

EFL Teachers’ Opinions on the Use of L1 in L2 Classrooms: Role of Experience and Context

The use of native language (L1) in foreign language classrooms (L2) has been studied from various perspectives, and it is important to investigate teachers’ opinions about the use of L1 to better understand their practice. This study investigates the role of experience on the attitudes of language teachers towards the use of L1 in L2 classes. The participants of this research were pre-service and in-service teachers, and research questions aimed to reveal the language teaching areas that they agreed and/or disagreed with the use of L1 in. The role of experience was clearly seen in the results of both quantitative and qualitative analyses in that the pre-service and in-service teachers differed significantly in their views about some areas where they use L1. While pre-service teachers showed a tendency to support English only, experienced teachers were more moderate towards the use of L1 in all their practices. Discussion of findings revealed that both experience and the L2 teaching and learning context were influential on teachers’ practices and beliefs. The study will provide insights into pre-service and in-service teachers’ attitudes in different educational settings and implications for pre- and in-service teacher education programs.

Atmospheric Iron and Aluminium Deposition and Sea-Surface Dissolved Iron and Aluminium Concentrations in the South China Sea off Malaysia Borneo (Sarawak Waters)

South China Sea (SCS) is an oligotrophic sea which usually receives low nutrients supply. However, massive atmospheric dust input was occurred during the haze event in Southeast Asia for almost every year. The input of dissolved iron (DFe) and dissolved aluminium (DAl) from dust and nearby land into SCS off Sarawak Borneo region during the worst haze event in 2015 of the Southeast Asia were investigated. The estimation dust deposition during this study was 0.162 mg/m2/yr. The atmospheric fluxes of total Fe and total Al at the offshore Sarawak waters were 0.611 µmol/m2/yr and 2.03 µmol/m2/yr, respectively, where the readily available dissolved Fe and Al from the dust were 0.11 µmol/m2/yr (DFe) and 0.31 µmol/m2/yr (DAl). Fe has higher solubility (17.78%) than Al (15.21%). The lateral fluxes (e.g. from the nearby land) were 37.08 nmol/m2/yr (DFe) and 125 nmol/m2/yr (DAl), with strong Fe organic ligand class L1 (log K:22.43 – 24.33). High concentrations of DFe and DAl at the surface water of the offshore region, coincided with high concentration of macronutrients due to the prevailing south-westerly winds originated from the west Kalimantan. Low residence times, ~0.92 (DFe) and ~1.31 (DAl) years, corresponded well with DAlexcess in surface seawater due to biological utilization of DFe. Future works emphasize on natural organic Fe(III) ligands and phytoplankton study are needed for better understanding on biogeochemistry of Fe and Al at SCS off Malaysia Borneo.

L2 French students' conversations during interactive writing tasks and their interaction mindset

AbstractThis study explores the relationship between L2 French students' conversations during interactive writing tasks and their interaction mindset, which is their perception about peer interaction. Students (N = 51) in three, high‐intermediate/low‐advanced French L2 classes completed an interaction mindset questionnaire and two interactive writing tasks during a 13‐week semester. Each class was randomly assigned to one type of interactive writing task: interactive planning (i.e., interaction during the planning phase only), interactive revision (i.e., interaction during the revision phase only), or collaborative writing (i.e., interaction during planning, writing, and revision phases). Their conversations were audio‐recorded, and transcripts were coded in terms of what they had talked about: content, organization, language, and other (i.e., task management, reading/rereading, and off‐task talk). Pearson's correlations indicated that the students' interaction mindset had a positive relationship with language and a negative relationship with content. Suggestions for instructors with an interest in interactive writing tasks are provided.

Redesigning a Foreign Language Class Based on the Community of Inquiry Model: Students' Learning Success and Satisfaction with an Online Course

ABSTRACT The global outbreak of COVID-19 substantially changed foreign language classrooms, from the design to the implementation of the lessons. Most of the L2 classes, originally designed for face-to-face (F2F) learning, switched to online classes during the pandemic. This article presents an example of a Korean class that was redesigned based on the community of inquiry (CoI) model due to the pandemic. I explored students' learning success after they took part in an online course. Using cognitive, social, and teaching presence, I investigated their satisfaction with the course compared with the full F2F courses. The data were drawn from a CoI questionnaire, students' reflections on their learning experiences, and a course satisfaction survey. The results showed that students could maintain a similar level of social and cognitive presence in the online class, but the online class exhibited a higher level of teaching presence. The students were generally satisfied with the online course in terms of the overall quality, the instructor's responsiveness, and the classroom atmosphere. This study provides pedagogical implications, including specific classroom activities and assessment, to enhance learning success and satisfaction in foreign language courses delivered online.

Project-based learning usage in L2 teaching in a contemporary comprehensive school (on the example of English as a foreign language classroom)

The article covers the problem of project-based learning (PBL) in present-day foreign language classes. The main aim of this research is to identify how PBL method can be implemented in teaching a foreign language (for example, English as a second language) in a modern comprehensive school and to give recommendations on organizing a foreign language class with the help of PBL. The working hypothesis of the study says that PBL method can be a relevant and effective methodological technique allowing educators to improve the quality of school education and motivating young learners to work hard at L2 classes and study a foreign language better. For the effective analysis and estimation of project-based learning in teaching ESL a two-step experiment was conducted. Overall, the results of the study demonstrated the importance of introduction of project-based learning in foreign language classes as an essential component of the teacher’s work in the present-day education. They also proved that project-based learning should be a must in every educator’s pedagogical “piggy-bank” because PBL is an effective professional instrument which may overcome the latest demands and challenges of the third millennium society.

Ο ρόλος της διαγλωσσικότητας στην επικοινωνία μεταξύ ενήλικων σπουδαστών της Ελληνικής ως δεύτερης/ ξένης γλώσσας

In L2 classes a monoglossic teaching approach is quite often, according to which the language of instruction is the target language and other languages should be avoided, in order for students not to be confused. However, today’s globalized environment as well as contemporary teaching approaches and techniques support the necessity of promoting translanguaging in the teaching process. In the context of our research targeted teaching interventions were implemented and their aim was to help adult students of Greek as L2 practice several language skills. The results show that students often engage in translanguaging practices in order to express themselves, to enrich their linguistic repertoire, to make correlations between structures of several languages etc.

THE CONTEXT OF LEARNING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (AL2LC SCALE)

The context of L2 learning (L2LC) is the most immediate learning environment for L2 learners, hence potentially influencing their L2 attitudes and linguistic behaviour. In this paper, we focused on an affective variable (students’ attitudes), and social (the classroom as a community of practice/CoP), but also cultural indirectly (students’ integration into their CoP). The main aim of the study was to explore the attitudes of two age and educational profile groups to the L2LC, and subsidiary to determine whether their evaluation of the L2LC is connected with the extent to which they are exposed to the L2 through its use as the language of instruction (L2LoI), and the age when they started learning the L2. The main administered instrument was the AL2LC scale, which showed good psychometric properties, and the gathered quantitative data were analysed in IBM SPSS 21. In a nutshell, the results show that the L2LC is one composite factor, closely connected with the frequency of use L2LoI, which gives rise to its actual employment in L2 classes. Secondary school students evaluated their overall L2LC better, and significant differences were found between the age and educational profile groups on individual components. In conclusion, further investigations are needed in order to analyse the L2LC in more detail, but within a broader concept of the L2 learning environment, including other sources of input learners are exposed to, as well as their relation to students’ L2 learning attitudes, and potentially achievement.

Perspectives on L2 Learning and Learning Disabilities

Students classified as LD in L2 classes often display learning difficulties. However, the LD concept is viewed differently in the U.S. and Europe. The purposes of this paper is to explain the LD construct, examine the differences in definitions and diagnosis for identification of students with learning problems, review research showing that L2 learning problems are language learning problems, examine the relationship between LDs and L2 learning problems, and summarize research-based L2 teaching methods for students with language learning problems.