L2 Class Research Articles

How error types affect the accuracy of L2 error correction with corpus use

This study reports classroom research on corpus use in second-language (L2) error correction to explore how information from corpus data influences L2 writing. As the error types for which corpus consultation is helpful remain uncertain, this study examined the error types for which data-driven learning (DDL) provides good error correction in L2 writing to maximize the benefits of corpus use in L2 class instruction. First, 55 undergraduate students from a university in Tokyo wrote an essay in 25 min without access to reference resources and received teacher or peer feedback on their errors. They then performed revision tasks for 15 min with either use or non-use of reference resources (corpus or dictionary). This procedure was carried out 9–11 times during the term. Error analysis found that error types affected how frequently and accurately learners corrected their errors using corpus data. Corpus use allowed easy access to the exact target phrases and frequency information of co-occurring words, which especially helped participants correct omission errors, and corpus consultation to correct omission errors increased over time. Teachers should consider error types so that DDL can promote accurate error correction in L2 writing and serve as a practical option in L2 classrooms.

How Teacher-in-Role Changes a Teacher’s Practice in Planning a Drama-integrated L2 Class

This study investigates how process drama, with a special focus on the teacher-in-role strategy, brings about change in an L2 teacher’s practice. As a reflective practitioner researcher, the teacher who aims to integrate drama into L2 classrooms investigates how her practice changes during the planning phase of her workshops by analyzing her reflective journals through thematic analysis, interpreting the analysis findings and relating them to data collected through observations and interviews. Both cases of teacher-in-role used within the conventional teacher frame and that used beyond the frame were present. In the former case, teacher-in-role resulted in making a teacher-centered pre-scripted performance. However, in the latter case, the teacher being in role created a drama world where the improvisational and spontaneous side of teacher-in-role was developed, resulting in changing the teacher’s practice as follows: First, the teacher-in-role strategy encouraged the teacher to find ways to enhance learners’ commitment to the drama experience by engaging them in improvisation. Second, adopting the strategy led the teacher to exercise imagination, being sensitive to learners’ responses. Lastly, the teacher taking on a role made the teacher think of ways to provide L2 support that promotes the process of co-constructing the drama world.

PRE-SERVICE ENGLISH TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF PRONUNCIATION

The studies that look at pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the teaching of pronunciation which is still relatively under-researched in the literature. Previous research on pronunciation commonly gave more attention to the designs to conduct the teaching pronunciation in the classroom, like the methods and the materials. In connection to that, this meant it is leading to what should be taught and how in pronunciation L2 class. This study aimed to look at the pre-service English teachers’ perceptions and understanding they are covered about concerning pronunciation teaching. The data for this study was collected through questionnaires with 18 pre-service English teachers from the English Education Department in a public university in Surakarta and interviews with three of them. The findings bring about questions for practice, teachers training, and professional improvement of the participants. The results add to the discussion about the background of the teachers’ knowledge related to pronunciation teaching. The issues raised also underline the need for more research in several areas, especially attitude toward pronunciation.

Translation for communicative purposes

Abstract An underexplored aspect of the use of translation in the L2 classroom is its potential to foster in-class communication. This article explores the efficacy of translation tasks as compared to monolingual writing tasks in engendering language-related discussions in class. The study is longitudinal and includes two experiments carried out in an EFL college setting. Data were collected over two semesters and a comparatively stronger presence of language-related episodes (LREs) was found among those who worked on translation tasks. This higher level of engagement in L2 class discussions suggests that translation tasks are advantageous in engendering student-initiated LREs, drawing learners’ attention to lexis and grammar, and fostering communication in the classroom.

Exploring the pedagogical potential of vertical and horizontal relations in the constructicon:The case of the family of subjective-transitive constructions withdecirin Spanish

AbstractThis paper explores the pedagogical implications and implementations of a Cognitive Construction Grammar (Goldberg, Adele E. 2006.Constructions at work: The nature of generalization in language. New York: Oxford University Press) approach for the teaching of construal in the L2 class of Spanish at an advanced level. To this end, this paper focuses on instances of secondary predication (involving a direct object and an object-related XPCOMP) withdecir“say” and other verbs of saying and calling in present-day Spanish, under the rubric of the denominative subjective-transitive construction. This construction comprises a number of lower-level configurations involving a reflexive direct object (the reflexive subjective-transitive construction), and an imperative verb (the imperative subjective-transitive construction). The verbdeciris also frequently attested in the reflex passive construction (the impersonal subjective-transitive construction), under which two different, though closely connected, lexically-filledlo que se diceXPCOMP configurations can be posited, which may function as a focusing/emphasizer subjunct or as a summative conjunct in present-day Spanish. A default inheritance system of the type invoked in Cognitive Construction Grammar is shown to capture broad and specific generalizations at a horizontal level (among the verbs attested in the (sub-)construction(s)) and a vertical level (among constructions of varying degrees of specificity) and can thus be informally used to optimize the pedagogical efficiency of the input for the explicit instruction of grammar in the advanced Spanish L2 class.

FOSTERING JAPANESE STUDENTS’ LOGICAL THINKING TO FORMULATE A COMMON UNDERSTANDING OF LOGICS BETWEEN TEACHERS AND STUDENTS

Japan’s MEXT’s (The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology) survey in 2016 shows that Japanese high school students have difficulty writing their opinions logically in English. To foster students’ logical thinking in class, it is necessary to formulate a common understanding regarding logic between teachers and students. However, the image of logic is not always shared well among teachers, students, and between teachers and students in an L2 class. Very little is also known about the effective methods to share a common understanding of logic. The aim of this study is to explore a possible method. The experiment was conducted with 105 high school students (three groups with 35 members each) and 11 English teachers. Each group (L1 essay analysis, L2 essay analysis, and L1 and L2 essay analyses) received lessons on essay analysis (twice a week for 2–3 weeks) using task sheets which were purposefully developed. Before and after the experiment, teachers and students were asked to write their definition of logics and English writing tests were conducted for students. The results of the statistical analysis (a quantitative textual analysis, t-test and effect size analysis) shows that 1) a consensus on logics is necessary among teachers before instructing essay writing, 2) the instruction using L1 essay contributes to eliminating the difference in the perception of logics between teachers and students, and 3) it enhances students’ logics in English essay writing. This study contributes well to progressing to the next step which supports students to write essays logically.

Synthesis and Characterization of Heteroleptic Ni(II) Bipyridine Complexes Bearing Bis(N-heterocyclic carbene) Ligands

The synthesis and characterization of four new Ni(II) bis(NHC) bipy complexes (bipy = 4, 4′-bipyridine, NHC = N-heterocyclic carbene) are reported. These represent the first examples of the NiII(NHC2) L2 class of compounds, where L is a two-electron-donor ligand. The introduction of a double propyl bridged bis-NHC ligand (CProp2C) imparts reversibility to the electrochemistry of these complexes. The electrochemical response includes two reductions, the first believed to be bipy ligand based, bipy0/–, and the second metal based. The unusual ligand arrangements in these complexes result in electronic structures in which both the HOMOs and LUMOs are ligand-based, as determined by DFT analysis of all four compounds.

A Comparison of the Grammatical Production of Child Heritage Speakers of Spanish across Language and Grade: Kindergarten and Grade 1

In this study, we elicited grammatical forms (oral production) from a group of child heritage speakers of Spanish (N = 45) in English and Spanish, using the morphosyntax subtest of the Bilingual English–Spanish Assessment (BESA), (Peña et al. 2014). A cross-sectional design was used with 25 participants in kindergarten and 20 in first grade. All children spoke Spanish at home and attended English rural schools. We controlled for L2 class environment and socio-economic status. Research findings indicated children produced more target structures in L1 Spanish. This project supports the view that sequential bilingualism and continuous exposure to the heritage language may assist heritage speakers to maintain some L1 structures (Miller and Cuza 2013; Pascual y Cabo and Gómez Soler 2015). Patterns of L2 development are also addressed.

The effects of a mobile gamification app on elementary students’ Spanish achievement and self-efficacy

ABSTRACTA quasi-experimental, pretest-posttest, non-equivalent control group design was used to examine the effect of a mobile gamification application on third and fourth grade students’ Spanish language achievement and student academic self-efficacy. In this study, the treatment group's Spanish language instruction was through the use of Duolingo®, a computer and mobile app that uses gamification and adaptive learning technology to teach foreign languages. Students in the control group received their regularly scheduled English L1/Spanish L2 class learning activities. The study was 12 weeks in duration. Students were assessed with a 50-question, multiple-choice English to Spanish and Spanish to English pretest covering vocabulary and grammar to control for prior Spanish language achievement. Students were assessed with the Pattern of Adaptive Learning Scales’ (PALS) Academic Efficacy subscale to control for prior academic self-efficacy. The same two instruments were used as posttests. An analysis of covariance showed no significant difference in students’ Spanish achievement or in academic self-efficacy between students who used Duolingo® and students who were taught with traditional face-to-face instruction. This demonstrates that Duolingo® is a useful tool for teaching Spanish to elementary students.

FACTORS AFFECTING INTEGRATION OF LOCAL CULTURE IN SAUDI ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS

Language and culture are perhaps inseparable; however, foreign language and local culture may not be compatible with each other. Therefore, integration of local culture (Arab) in foreign (English) language teaching is cynically questioned. Studies support the notion that foreign language teaching can be boosted by the incorporation of foreign (British) culture in the target language (English) classroom. But, the application of local culture in the target language classroom poses great challenges as many factors affect the process such as: teachers’ native background, L2 teachers’ experience in native countries, L2 teachers’ preferences, teachers’ lack of local culture’s perception, lack of bilingual or multicultural awareness, administrators’ attitude towards local culture integration, students’ liking for native teacher and native contents, and traditional method of teaching English. Integration of local culture is required if the current books don’t have enough local material, and books are written by foreign authors. In short, the paper explores factors affecting integration of local culture apart from initially eliciting some advantages of Arab culture in English classrooms, and teachers’ preparedness to incorporate local culture. The study is of descriptive type which includes 2 samples: 3 types of teacher-group, and a group of students. The findings of the study lead to innovation of a teaching strategy by incorporating local culture in L2 class for motivating the students further. Article visualizations:

A Study of Teachers’ and Students’ Attitudes towards Error Correction in the L2 class

A Study of Teachers’ and Students’ Attitudes towards Error Correction in the L2 class

Agency and Emotion in Narrative Accounts of Emergent Conflict in an L2 Classroom

Although recent years have witnessed increasing engagement with agency and emotion in applied linguistics together with claims that they are related constructs, precisely how they are related has not been the subject of research attention. Drawing on stance as an analytical tool, this article examines the interrelationships between emotion and agency from a dialogical perspective in multiple accounts of an incident of emergent conflict in an L2 class for immigrants and refugees. Accounts of the conflict are given by a teacher in three settings: in an initial written account, then revisited in an individual interview, and subsequently as part of a group discussion with teachers. The analysis illustrates the interrelationships between affective stance attribution and agency, agency as control over projected stance, emotion and dilemmas of answerability, commitment to stance as an agentive resource, and through emotion and constrained agency as intersubjective stance. The article addresses wider questions concerning how and why emotions get talked about as teachers author themselves and assign meaning as crucial dimensions of their agency.

Joking Behavior as Language Socialization Practice in an L2 Class

Joking Behavior as Language Socialization Practice in an L2 Class

Items and Generalizations: Evidence from <i>Decir</i> within the Family of Subjective-Transitive Constructions in Spanish

This paper explores the existence of a continuum between regular, productive, conventional configurations and fixed, idiosyncratic and novel configurations within the full gamut of instances of secondary predication with decir ('say') and verba dicendi in present-day Spanish. Drawing on Cognitive Construction Grammar, it is argued that instances of the secondary predication with these verbs can be aptly regarded as forming part of the family of subjective-transitive constructions. Specifically, schematic configurations involving decir and other verba dicendi are shown to be instances of the denominative subjective-transitive construction. Configurations of this kind interact with partially filled in instances of secondary predication involving coercion via a reflexive pronoun in the postverbal NP slot as well as coercion in combination with an imperative form. This continuum is even more clearly observable in the case of configurations involving the reflex passive clitic se, giving rise to a three-point cline between (i) non-gramaticalized (compositional) configurations with an active counterpart, (ii) non-grammaticalized constructions without an active counterpart and (iii) grammaticalized (non-compositional) configurations without an active counterpart. At a higher level of delicacy, it is shown that lo que se dice XPCOMP construction, understood as the result of incipient grammaticalization, may function as a focusing/emphasizer subjunct or as a summative conjunct in present-day Spanish. One of the broad-scale generalizations emerging from this study is that the XPCOMP must lend itself to a subjective, evaluative construal on the part of the subject/speaker. All the instances of the subjective-transitive construction surveyed here impose this restriction on the XPCOMP. However, the lo que se dice XPCOMP construction functioning as a emphasizer/focusing subjunct also allows a more disparate range of non-evaluative XPCOMPs. A default inheritance system of the type invoked in Cognitive Construction Grammar is shown to capture the commonalities as well as the idiosyncratic particulars of this family of constructions and can thus be informally used to optimize the input for the instruction of grammar in the advanced Spanish L2 class.

Copper speciation and distribution in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean

The distribution and speciation of dissolved copper (Cu) was investigated in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean in austral autumn of 2008 as part of the IPY GEOTRACES expedition ZERO & DRAKE. Distribution measurements focused on two transects across the major frontal systems along the Zero Meridian and across the Drake Passage whereas speciation work was investigated in the Drake Passage and the ice covered Weddell Sea. Along the two transects the dissolved Cu concentration exhibited a gradient in the surface with Cu values increasing poleward. Vertical profiles of Cu showed in general monotonic increases with depth, which correlated slightly with silicate but poorly with phosphate. Benthic sources of Cu were observed along the Zero Meridian transect and close to the Antarctic Peninsula for the Drake Passage. Dissolved Cu (DCu) appears to be removed from surface waters through adsorption/complexation by particulate matter. Speciation measurements on DCu indicated a relatively uniform distribution of 25–50nM of L2 (log K~11.8) class ligands. No L1 class ligands (log K>13) were detected in any of the samples examined. Estimates of free Cu (pCu=13.5 to 12.5) showed only small variations in the upper water column and was generally uniform in deep waters. These findings indicate that there is insufficient free copper to account for the rapid reactivity of superoxide (O2−) with Cu in these waters (Heller and Croot, 2010c) suggesting that the organic Cu complexes present in seawater can undergo rapid redox reactions.

Characteristics of Motivated L2 Class Groups: From Language Teachers’ and Students’ Perspectives

In most learning situations, learners are learning with their peers, and the teacher is teaching to a class, not to an individual learner. As it is indisputable that learners conceptualize their learning as occurring in a group, it is logical to assume that the class group has some effect on learners’ learning. Thus, it could be constructive to investigate the characteristics of a motivating classroom environment and how teachers can help cultivate a more comforting learning environment fostered by a motivating environment. This research focuses on exploring the characteristics of a motivating L2 classroom environment from both language teachers’ and learners’ perspectives. A questionnaire with both closed- and open-ended questions was distributed to approximately 100 college L2 learners studying at a private language college (from three English learning class groups). These class groups’ English teachers were also interviewed to share their ideas of what comprised a motivating environment. Both the questionnaire and interview data suggest the importance of good interaction in a motivating L2 environment. The data also reveal the importance of teacher enthusiasm toward teaching, positive learning attitude in students, a strong cohesiveness group, and positive group norms.

Interactional Features of Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication in the Intermediate L2 Class

This study explores social interactive features of synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC)--commonly known as "chat"--as such features unfolded in real time and developed over a nine-week period in two fourth-semester college Spanish classes. The study invoked the Vygotskian sociocultural theoretical framework and employed discourse analysis as a research tool to describe and explain outstanding features of chat room communication. Specific interactional features examined are intersubjectivity, off-task discussion, greetings and leave-takings, identity exploration and role play, humor and sarcasm, and use of the L1 (English). Through these communicative behaviors, learners appropriated the chat room environment, transforming it into a learner-centered discourse community governed by communicative autonomy and the use of language and discourse functions that go beyond those encountered in the typical L2 classroom.

Learning Strategies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

The aim of this paper is to provide a contemporary portrait of second language learning and teaching and to illustrate waysteachers can incorporate these ideas in their own teaching practice. It attempts to clarify some of the fuzziness by trying first of all toestablish basic terminology and going on to discuss definition and classification of language learning strategies. This article provides anoverview of language learning strategies for second language teachers. Using language learning strategies and training in the L2 class notonly encourages learners in their language learning but also helps teachers reflect on and improve their teaching. The development oflanguage learning strategy theory and how it fits into the framework of contemporary language teaching and learning for students whospeak other languages is examined, and research on language learning strategies to date is reviewed.

Inculcating Self Correction in Writing Through Peer e-Editing

Peer editing enables students to collaborate and edit each other’s writing. In an L2 classroom, the exercise does not only offer distinct advantages to language learning but also encourages students to be more responsible for their own writing. A number of studies have been conducted on the advantages, effectiveness and importance of peer editing in the L2 classroom. However, little attention has been given to the hidden values of the exercise. This study reports the positive impact of e-editing on students of Arabic L2 class as far as grammar is concerned. Both quantitative and qualitative data were obtained and triangulated. The findings showed that the students were more responsible with their own writing and the quality of their work was improved over the course of one semester.

The functions of formulaic speech in the L2 class

This study deals with Formulaic Speech (FS) usage in the context of the partial L2 immersion class. It tries to define and classify FS according to its functions. The fact that learners resort to FS shows that second language production is not only based on the construction of sentences from scratch but also on the integration of formulaic sequences in discourse. But what is the use of FS? What are the possible functions it performs? We attempt to show that FS makes up for a lack of structural knowledge and might therefore be used as a learning strategy in the acquisition of structure. Then we consider the psycholinguistic function of FS and try to demonstrate that it might be a pre-planning strategy and a way for the learner to economize effort on processing and thus focus on his or her learning of the language. Finally, the paper analyzes the communicative function of FS and its role in the relation between speaker and hearer, and suggests that it might play a part in the development of pragmatic competence.