L2 Anxiety Research Articles

L2 Anxiety, Self-Regulatory Strategies, Self-Efficacy, Intended Effort and Academic Achievement: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

Factors that contribute to learning achievement have always been a primary research concern in the field of education. In the field of second/foreign language (L2) learning, researchers have been trying to explore many important factors that are linked to successful learning and how these factors may predict the success of language learning. With respect to the factors contributing to language proficiency, many researchers endeavor themselves to the exploration of assisting the learners. The present study aims to explore whether or not the following factors would influence learners’ academic achievement: the process of goal-setting, the L2 anxiety, the effort the learners put into, self-efficacy together with self-regulatory strategies. A total number of 356 senior high school students who were learning English as a Foreign Language participated in the study. A new questionnaire was developed to measure and collect the participants’ responses in respect to the above-mentioned learning factors. In order to investigate the relationships among these factors and the learners’ academic performance, the structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to identify the best fit model. It was found that self-efficacy, L2 anxiety, together with goal-setting processes, are prerequisites for the application of effective self-regulatory strategies, which in turn play an important role in affecting the intended efforts the learners make, and consequently influence the learners’ achievement. According to the findings, we suggest the teacher elevate the students’ self-efficacy, lower the L2 anxiety, help set their learning goals, cultivate their capability of employing strategies and increase their intended effort.

SECOND LANGUAGE ANXIETY AND ACHIEVEMENT

AbstractSecond language (L2) anxiety has been the object of constant empirical and theoretical attention for several decades. As a matter of both theoretical and practical interest, much of the research in this domain has examined the relationship between anxiety and L2 achievement. The present study meta-analyzes this body of research. Following a comprehensive search, a sample of 97 reports were identified, contributing a total of 105 independent samples (N = 19,933) from 23 countries. In the aggregate, the 216 effect sizes (i.e., correlations) reported in the primary studies yielded a mean of r = −.36 for the relationship between L2 anxiety and language achievement. Moderator analyses revealed effects sizes to vary across different types of language achievement measures, educational levels, target languages, and anxiety types. Overall, this study provides firm evidence for both the negative role of L2 anxiety in L2 learning and the moderating effects of a number of (non)linguistic variables. We discuss the findings in the context of theoretical and practical concerns, and we provide direction for future research.

EFL students’ views of willingness to communicate in the extramural digital context

This study examined factors that might have affected EFL learners’ willingness to communicate (WTC) in the extramural digital (ED) environment, a rapidly emerging L2 communication context. The investigator conducted a semi-structured interview with 98 EFL students from three Korean universities. Drawing on grounded theory, socio-political (Korea’s K-12 instruction), contextual (familiarity with interlocutors and communities), and individual variables (L2 self-confidence and anxiety) emerged as major sources of influence on participants’ L2 WTC. Additionally, these sub-variables appeared to interact simultaneously during L2 communication in the ED context. This study contributes to further advancing our understanding of L2 WTC in a CALL environment. It also offers pedagogical insights into how L2 teachers can facilitate EFL learners’ WTC in a range of extramural digital environments where their L2 WTC is very different from face-to-face classroom and extracurricular digital settings.

L2 ANXIETY INFLUENCING SELF-REPORTED LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY: A QUANTITATIVE STUDY ON PAKISTANI ESL ARTS STUDENTS

This paper is part of a large study that examines L2 anxiety, L2 learning beliefs and achievement of Pakistani tertiary level ESL students. Drawing on the data obtained from 183 ESL university students of arts and humanities subjects through Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’s (1986) Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), this study finds that Pakistani ESL students exhibited fairly high level of L2 anxiety. It also finds Fear of Negative Evaluation (FNE) to be the most dominant source of the students’ L2 anxiety, followed by Communication Apprehension (CA) and Test Anxiety (TA) as the second and third sources respectively. The study further finds that female students displayed higher level of L2 anxiety than did male students. No significant differences were found in the anxiety level of students based on study levels. An important finding of the study includes a moderate, negative association between students’ L2 anxiety and their rating of English language proficiency. Based upon the findings, the study offers certain pedagogical implications for the improvement of English language teaching and learning in Pakistan and worldwide. Article visualizations:

The use of course grades as metrics in L2 research: A systematic review

AbstractMuch of applied linguistics research has been concerned with classroom‐based second language (L2) development as it offers an ideal setting for examining the institutional ecology of L2 learning and teaching. However, scholars have continued to call for greater attention to the operationalization of constructs, selection of valid assessments, and use of appropriate statistical analyses. One cause for concern is the use of instructor‐constructed evaluations for research purposes, commonly found both as single assessments and, in their composite form, as course grades. The present study examined justifications for and uses of course grades in L2 research by systematically searching, coding, and analyzing course grades as variables in a sample of published L2 research in four prominent L2 journals: Foreign Language Annals, Language Learning, Modern Language Journal, and TESOL Quarterly. To provide a concrete example, this meta‐analysis investigated the relationship between L2 grades and anxiety. A number of suggestions for the use of grades and other assessment tools in educationally oriented L2 research are offered.

L2 anxiety and the foreign language reading anxiety scale: Listening to the evidence

Second language (L2) educators have proposed a unique anxiety for general L2 learning and an anxiety specific to L2 reading. Since the early 1990s, the L2 anxiety concept has been challenged on theoretical and empirical grounds. In this investigation, U.S. high school L2 learners were administered the Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) and measures of first language (L1) skills, L1 phonological memory and working memory, L1 print exposure, L1 reading attitudes, L1 metacognitive ability, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement, then were followed through 2 to 3 years of Spanish. Results showed that the FLRAS explained significant unique variance in most L1 skills and L2 aptitude. Hierarchical regressions showed that the FLRAS explained growth in L2 achievement from first‐ to second‐ to third‐year Spanish. Findings suggest that the FLRAS is likely to measure individual differences in or self‐perceptions of students’ language learning skills rather than a specific anxiety for L2 learning. Implications for the teaching of L2s to U.S. students are discussed.

The L2 motivational self system, L2 interest, and L2 anxiety: A study of motivation and gender differences in the Croatian context

Abstract Studies have shown that second language (L2) motivation can have an impact on L2 learning processes. The aim of this study was to investigate gender differences in L2 motivation among Croatian university students from the perspective of the L2MSS. The results indicated that females were more motivated than males to learn English, had higher levels of interest in English, while differences in L2 anxiety were somewhat ambiguous. Females also demonstrated that their L2 motivation was linked to motives related to the avoidance of negative outcomes suggesting that females are perhaps more conscientious learners compared to males. These findings point to a complex motivational state among females, which may indicate important gender-based differences in language learning.

Motivational Factors in Multilingual Students' Learning Additional Languages: The Case of English and Turkish

The current study examined the relationships among motivational factors (i.e., motivation types and motivational strength, and language anxiety) in the simultaneous learning process of additional languages. A mixed-methods design was conducted with 86 multilingual learners learning both English and Turkish. The data were collected using a survey and follow-up open-ended questions about the motivational factors. There were three major findings of the study. First, the motivational factors in one language were positively correlated with the same factors in another. Second, although the learners' motivation (i.e., intrinsic, extrinsic and integrative) and motivational strength to continue their education showed no differences in both languages, their L2 anxiety towards learning additional languages was statistically different, in that learners were less anxious when learning English language than learning Turkish language. Third, multilingual learners' interest in learning other languages and willingness to integrate in the target language culture, the status quo of the target language in the global world and the level of unfamiliarity of the target language seem to play a role in the learners' beliefs of motivation, feeling in learning additional languages and intention to study languages. Overall, the study highlighted the role of multilingualism in learning English and Turkish. It also shed light on understanding L2 affective factors learning distinct L2s.

Do low L2 abilities impede healthy aging for migrant older adults in the Netherlands?

Abstract Research towards aging of migrant populations has so far mostly focused on (bio)medical and psychological aspects. Here we explore to what extent second language ability is a factor influencing the healthy aging process of older Turkish migrants in the Netherlands. To get a first understanding of the linguistic situation of older migrants within this setting, interviews with ten healthcare consultants1 with insight into their local Turkish community were conducted, forming a ‘needs-analysis’ of this group. It emerged that older migrants rely heavily on their ethnically close-knit networks for information and care. In communicating their healthcare needs to others outside the family, the older migrants experience language barriers, directly resulting from low L2 proficiency and L2 anxiety. These barriers prevent access to health information and induce dependence. This initial exploration of the interplay between language and aging in a migrant population can be used as input into more advanced, empirical investigations.

High School Spanish Students and Foreign Language Reading Anxiety: Déjà vu All Over Again All Over Again

AbstractA unique anxiety for foreign language (L2) learning has been hypothesized to explain students’ problems with language learning. However, L2 anxiety instruments have been challenged on the grounds that they reflect students’ language learning ability and/or perceptions of their language learning skills. In this study, 266 U.S. high school students were administered measures of first language (L1) skills, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement and followed through 2–3 years of Spanish courses. In 1st‐year Spanish, they were administered the Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS), divided into 3 anxiety groups, and compared on the L1 and L2 measures. Findings showed that the Low Anxiety group scored significantly higher than the High Anxiety group on all L1 and L2 measures, and significantly higher than the Average Anxiety group on most L1 and L2 measures at the end of 1st‐ and 2nd‐year Spanish. Students who completed 3rd‐year Spanish displayed either low or average anxiety on the FLRAS. Results revealed negative correlations between the FLRAS and all L1 and L2 measures. Correlations between the FLRAS and the L2 achievement measures increased over time. Findings show that the FLRAS is unlikely to be measuring anxiety for language learning but more likely to be a proxy for students’ levels of L1 skill, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement.

TELL (Technology-enhanced Language Learning) in Iranian High Schools: A Panacea for Emotional and Motivational Detriments

Recent expansions in technological tools are shifting the direction of foreign-language education. A plethora of EFL research studies suggested that the benefits of TELL (technology-enhanced language learning) embrace a wide array of cognitive, motivational, and emotional attributes. English language teaching in Iran has recently undergone a host of rapid changes. The most apparent change was that the traditional grammar-based instruction left its place to communicative-oriented approaches. As a result, teachers needed extra aids to provide learners with the desired environments and foster exposure to authentic materials. In this regard, multimedia techniques (MTs) offer wide range of facilities in high speed and effective information processing. The purpose of this study was to examine the possible impact of MTs in high schools on students’ L2 learning attitudes, anxiety, and language proficiency. To do so, the researchers adopted a mixed-methods design integrating experimental and interview analyses. The sample of the study consisted of 124 female students from Motahhareh high school in Mashhad, a city in Northeast of Iran. Twelve items out of Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self- system scale were picked to measure attitudes to L2 learning and L2 anxiety. The Babel test was employed for gauging participants’ language proficiency. The sample was divided into two experimental and two control groups. The participants in experimental and control groups were provided with the same materials and instruction. The point of difference lay in the mode of presenting the materials in experimental group, i.e. via multimedia techniques. In the second phase, a semi-structured interview was conducted with a number of students in experimental groups to delve into their attitudes and feedbacks concerning MT-based instruction. The results indicated that there were statistically significant differences in students’ L2 learning attitudes, anxiety, and language proficiency in favor of the experimental group. In the light of the obtained results, the study presented a number of practical and accessible recommendations for implementing multimedia in teaching English.

The effects of short-term study abroad on L2 anxiety, international posture, and L2 willingness to communicate

ABSTRACTThe present study was designed to examine the effects of short-term study abroad (SA) on learners’ L2 anxiety, international posture, and L2 willingness to communicate (WTC). To this end, the SA experience of 69 L2 learners in four different SA programmes was investigated. The data were obtained from participant questionnaires, which were administered before and after the five-week SA experience. The results showed that the participants made gains in international posture and L2 WTC, and their anxiety level decreased significantly through short-term SA. When divided into three proficiency level groups, however, only intermediate and beginner level groups were found to make significant gains in these variables, whereas the advanced level group did not. On the other hand, there was no significant difference among different SA programmes in terms of their influence on the gains in L2 anxiety, international posture, and L2 WTC. Finally, the participants’ perception of adjustment in the target country, gains in international posture, and decrease in L2 anxiety level were found to account for a significant amount of variance in the gain in L2 WTC. Pedagogical implications regarding the short-term study abroad are discussed.

Validating the L2 Motivational Self System in a Japanese EFL Context : The Interplay of L2 Motivation, L2 Anxiety, Self-efficacy, and the Perceived Amount of Information

Validating the L2 Motivational Self System in a Japanese EFL Context : The Interplay of L2 Motivation, L2 Anxiety, Self-efficacy, and the Perceived Amount of Information

The Influence of an Orientation Program on Willingness to Communicate and L2 Anxiety

The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of a two-week English-language orientation program at a Korean university on first-year students’ perceptions of English. This quantitative study contributes to the local literature by documenting the changes on a preand post-course survey that measured participants’ willingness to communicate, foreign language anxiety, attitudes towards English, and perceptions of English as a global language. Key results of independent-samples t-tests indicated that student perceptions showed statistically significant changes on five of the six scales, and that the biggest influences of the program were on willingness to communicate and lessening student anxiety. The study also investigated the link between program satisfaction and experience of studying English abroad, finding that there was no relation between them. However, a one-way ANOVA and correlation analysis indicated that there was a relationship between program satisfaction and students’ self-rated proficiency, finding that the lower-proficiency students were slightly less satisfied than those rating themselves as “average” or “good” English speakers. The study concludes with recommendations for future studies and for planning English-language orientation programs in Korean universities.

Engineering students’ motivational variables towards English and the learning of the English language

This study examines the influence of motivational variables (integrative vs. instrumental motivation, attitudes, L2 anxiety and linguistic self-confidence) towards the learning of English in the current globalised university context. A total of 76 engineering undergraduates at the University of the Balearic Islands (U.I.B) participated in this study. A questionnaire was used to elicit students’ responses. The results indicate that contrary to previous research (Wimolmas, 2013), integrative reasons for learning the English language have the greatest influence on ESP students’ motivation. The findings also show that the integrative orientation that drives participants is more closely related to their wish to integrate and fluently communicate with a broader international community rather than with a specific valued target language community (Dornyei, 2009; Papi, 2010). This new conceptualisation of L2 motivation involves a no longer clear-cut separation between integrative and instrumental orientations. The data also reveal that engineering students have highly positive attitudes to learn English, especially female students who score significantly higher in their ratings. Engineering students also show a high level of linguistic self-confidence, although they are found to experience a great deal of language anxiety mainly associated with classroom-related factors.

Affective Factors in Learning Foreign Languages : Differences between English and Arabic

While many studies have examined the role of affective factors in foreign language (L2) learning, few studies have researched the relationship between affective factors and performance related to a less commonly taught language (LCTL) such as Arabic. This study examined learning motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety of English and Arabic learners. It also examined the predictive power of affective factors in English and Arabic performance. The data came from 52 high school students learning both English and Arabic languages. The results showed that there were significant mean differences in ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, motivational intensity, self-confidence, and anxiety between English and Arabic learning. For English achievement ideal L2 self and anxiety were the significant predictors, while only ought-to L2 self was found to predict students’ Arabic performance.

Foreign Language Anxiety and Learner Beliefs in Second Language Learning: A Research Timeline

Research in second language learning has significantly demonstrated that foreign language anxiety and learner beliefs have been the main domain of inquiry in applied linguistics. Such interest has seen upsurge in studies on L2 anxiety and learner beliefs. This study tends to review language anxiety and learner beliefs in language learning. The review shows moderate and high levels of language anxiety in studies including negative correlation between anxiety and achievement. In addition, it also reveals that learner beliefs have played a role in increasing language anxiety. Moreover, research studies on FLA (foreign language anxiety) and LB (learner beliefs) describe a whole scenario of the exiting literature. The study also critiques some pedagogical strategies suggested in research and how far these are applicable in decreasing language anxiety and avoiding incorrect beliefs about language learning. Further, the research review suggests that different approaches are used to quantify language anxiety and to describe beliefs in language learning. Since, the prime purpose of the study is to review the approaches and their validity and reliability in describing language anxiety and beliefs. The study synthesizes foreign language anxiety and learner beliefs studies and offers some recommendations in order to complement and supplement the existing literature.

Japanese JHS students’ Ideal L2 Selves: Confidence, anxiety, and willingness to communicate

This paper reports the results from an exploratory study which tested for Japanese junior high school student self-determination theory-based (SDT) motives toward EFL learning (N = 140), plus confidence, anxiety, and willingness to communicate in EFL (EFL WTC; N = 120). The purpose of this paper is to show the influence of the Ideal L2 Self items on anxiety, confidence, the SDT intrinsic motives for knowledge (IM Knowledge), and EFL WTC. Two survey instruments were used in the study. The SDT instrument results indicate the students are eager to become proficient in EFL. This is based on the high mean score for the three identified regulation items, which refer to motives to learn English for future goals (i.e., an Ideal L2 Self). The WTC instrument results indicated a low level of confidence and willingness to speak English, and much anxiety toward using English. To test the influence of the Ideal L2 Self items on WTC, a regression analysis of the SDT and WTC sub-scales was conducted (dependent variable: WTC). Accordingly, a structural equation model (SEM) of the Ideal L2 Self items, IM Knowledge, anxiety, confidence, and FL WTC was created. The SEM results indicate the Ideal L2 Self has a strong, statistically significant (P = < .01) negative influence on anxiety and a stronger positive, statistically significant (P = < .01) influence on IM Knowledge and between confidence and WTC; no path was found between IM Knowledge and WTC. The findings are discussed in relation to Dörnyei’s (2005) Ideal L2 Self theory. 本論は、日本の中学生140人を対象に、自己決定理論（SDT）に基づくEFL学習への動機と、外国語としての英語（EFL）でのコミュニケーションへの自信、不安、意欲（WTC）を分析した予備的研究報告である。本論の目的は、不安や自信への「目的言語を駆使する理想的な自分像（Ideal L2 Self）」と、英語の知識獲得への内発的動機（IM知識）の影響を検証することである。SDTとWTC（従属変数）の回帰分析を行った結果、SDTの調査では、学習者は英語が堪能になることに意欲を示した。これは将来の目標への動機づけ（すなわち理想の英語学習の自己）に関連する3つの項目の平均値の高さからわかる。WTCの調査では、英語を話すことへの自信と意欲が低く、英語使用への不安を示した。コミュニケーションへの意欲（WTC）における理想学習者像の影響を調査するために、SDTとWTC下位尺度の回帰分析を行った（従属変数-WTC）。よって、理想学習者像項目、IM知識、不安、自信、およびFL WTCの構造方程式モデル（SEM）を作成した。SEMの調査の結果では、理想自己は、不安に対しては統計的に強い負の有意性（P = < .01）、またIM知識と信頼内とWTCには統計的により強い正の優位性（P = < .01）を示した。IM知識とWTC間の相関関係はなかった。本論では調査結果をDörnyei （2005）の「理想的な学習者像」理論との関連において論じる。

Neural correlates of second-language communication and the effect of language anxiety

Communicative speech is a type of language use that involves goal-directed action targeted at another person based on social interactive knowledge. Previous studies regarding one's first language (L1) have treated the theory of mind system, which is associated with understanding others, and the sensorimotor system, which is associated with action simulation, as important contributors to communication. However, little is known about the neural basis of communication in a second language (L2), which is limited in terms of its use as a communication tool. In this fMRI study, we manipulated the type of speech (i.e., communication vs. description) and the type of language (L1 vs. L2) to identify the specific brain areas involved in L2 communication. We also attempted to examine how the cortical mechanisms underlying L2 speech production are influenced by oral proficiency and anxiety regarding L2. Thirty native Japanese speakers who had learned English as an L2, performed communicative and descriptive speech-production tasks in both L1 and L2 while undergoing fMRI scanning. We found that the only the L2 communication task recruited the left posterior supramarginal gyrus (pSMG), which may be associated with the action simulation or prediction involved in generating goal-directed actions. Furthermore, the neural mechanisms underlying L2 communication, but not L2 description, were sensitive to both oral proficiency and anxiety levels; (a) activation in the left middle temporal gyrus (MTG) increased as oral proficiency levels increased, and (b) activation in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), including the left insula, decreased as L2 anxiety levels increased. These results reflect the successful retrieval of lexical information in a pragmatic context and an inability to monitor social behaviors due to anxiety. Taken together, the present results suggest that L2 communication relies on social skills and is mediated by anxiety and oral proficiency.

L2 Motivational Self System, Attitudes, and Affect as Predictors of L2 WTC: An Imagined Community Perspective

This study explored the interrelationships between the three components of second language (L2) motivational self system (i.e., ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience), international posture, L2 anxiety, and willingness to communicate (WTC) using structural equation modeling. Questionnaire data were collected from 1,013 university students in China. The results showed that ideal L2 self was predicted by learning experience, ought-to L2 self, and international posture. Ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self exerted, respectively, a negative and positive effect on L2 anxiety. L2 WTC was found to encompass two distinct factors: WTC inside and outside the classroom. The former was predicted by L2 anxiety, learning experience, and international posture, whereas the latter had international posture as its only direct predictor. This model marks the first step toward drawing on L2 motivational self system to account for foreign language learners’ communication intention from the perspective of an imagined global community.