L2 Reading Research Articles

L1 and L2 reading comprehension in Dutch higher education students with and without dyslexia: effects of test type and linguistic skills

L1 and L2 reading comprehension in Dutch higher education students with and without dyslexia: effects of test type and linguistic skills

EXPLORING THE ROLE OF L1 LITERACY SKILLS IN L2 READING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT AMONG SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN GHANA

This study investigated the relationship between first language (L1) literacy skills and second language (L2) reading comprehension and vocabulary development among students in Ghana. The study was grounded in Cummin’s (1970) Linguistic Interdependence Theory (LIT). The qualitative approach was adopted, and three instruments- focus group discussions, interviews and classroom observations- were used to obtain data from the sample of 300 secondary school students and 40 teachers. The researcher assessed participants' views in L1 literacy domains (phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and reading fluency) as well as their views on L2 (English) reading comprehension and vocabulary. The findings revealed a significant positive correlation between students' L1 literacy skills and their achievement in L2 reading comprehension and vocabulary. Those with more advanced abilities in their native language consistently demonstrated higher levels of reading comprehension and broader English vocabulary knowledge. This underscores the critical role of strong foundational literacy in the first language as a precursor to successful second language acquisition. The study also identified key instructional strategies that could help bridge the gap for ESL learners, such as explicit instruction in L1 literacy, structured opportunities for cross-linguistic transfer, and the incorporation of culturally relevant, mother-tongue materials into the curriculum. The implications of these findings for policymakers, curriculum designers, and teachers working to improve educational outcomes for linguistically diverse student populations are discussed.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0799/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

Modelling the effects of the reading medium on L2 Spanish reading emotions: The moderating role of individual difference variables

While existing research has documented that the reading medium significantly impacts language learners’ reading comprehension processes and outcomes, empirical evidence on how the reading medium influences reading emotions is lacking. The present study contributes to the field by investigating whether reading emotions (i.e. enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom) of learners of Spanish as a second language (L2) differ between mobile-assisted and paper-based reading processes. In addition, it explores whether individual difference variables (i.e. L2 Spanish proficiency and preferences for the reading medium) moderate the relationship between the reading medium and reading emotions. The instruments used are reading comprehension tests and questionnaire surveys administered to a sample of 245 first-year college students majoring in Spanish. Paired samples t-tests indicate that L2 Spanish learners perceive more enjoyment and less negative emotions when reading from a paper-based format than those from a mobile-assisted mode. In addition, moderation analyses indicate that both L2 Spanish proficiency and preferences for the medium are moderators of the relationships between the medium and reading emotions. More proficient L2 Spanish readers perceive more enjoyment and less anxiety and boredom when reading from paper than those from mobile phones; less proficient L2 readers demonstrate the opposite pattern. Students’ preference for mobile-assisted language reading would significantly enhance their reading enjoyment while reducing reading anxiety and boredom when they engage in such a type of reading mode. These results imply that individual differences are crucial factors in shaping students’ emotions across different reading modes. Reasons for differences in reading emotions across mediums and the moderating roles of individual variables are discussed.

Glossed video keyword captions and L2 vocabulary acquisition: an eye-tracking study

The effect of video captions on vocabulary acquisition is a growing topic of interest among L2 researchers. Expanding on this line of inquiry, this study explores how keyword captions enhanced with first language (L1) and second language (L2) glosses (i.e. definitions or brief explanations of unfamiliar words) impact L2 learners’ vocabulary acquisition. This study involved 101 Korean undergraduate students randomly assigned to a baseline (keyword caption only), L1 gloss (keyword caption + L1 gloss), or L2 gloss (keyword caption + L2 gloss) group. The participants viewed a video that corresponded to their group, during which their eye movements were tracked and recorded. Subsequently, the participants completed two vocabulary tests assessing word form and meaning recall. Linear mixed-effects analysis revealed that keyword captions with L1 and L2 glosses resulted in distinct attentional allocation and contributed differently to lexical acquisition. Notably, although the three groups spent similar durations reading the target word forms, the L1 gloss group significantly outperformed the other two groups in word form recall scores. Furthermore, although the L2 gloss group spent three times longer reading L2 glosses compared to the time the L1 gloss group spent reading L1 glosses, the latter had significantly higher scores in the form translation test. These findings have significant implications for L2 pedagogy, particularly regarding the choice between target-language-exclusive or bilingual approaches.

The role of context in the word family debate

There has been debate regarding how to define the lexical unit for the receptive skills, with different levels of inclusiveness being possible depending on learner proficiency and pedagogical or research purpose. The most frequently-used definitions for L2 reading are the lemma, flemma, and Bauer and Nation's (1993) level-6 word family (WF6). When WF6 is used, it is assumed that if one family member is known, unfamiliar members can be understood when encountered in meaningful contexts. Past investigations of this assumption have been criticized for assessing knowledge of morphologically-related words only in isolation or in sentence-length contexts. The present study addressed this concern by examining Japanese university students' ability to understand related words in isolation, in limited-context sentences, and in page-length passages. The relationship between baseword and derivational form knowledge was weak, and the level of contextualization had little effect on this relationship. These findings corroborate past findings and support the use of limited-context assessment in research on the word family and the relationship between vocabulary and reading.

Impact of Blended Extensive Reading Program on L2 Reading Proficiency and Fluency

Impact of Blended Extensive Reading Program on L2 Reading Proficiency and Fluency

How do L1 glosses affect EFL learners’ reading comprehension performance? An eye-tracking study

Abstract This study employed eye-tracking technology to examine how English as a foreign language learners at different proficiency levels process L1-glossed words and how this processing relates to L2 reading comprehension. Forty-seven university students were divided into a higher-proficiency group (n = 23) and a lower-proficiency group (n = 24) based on their L2 proficiency. Both groups were asked to read an English passage with L1 (Chinese) glosses. Their eye movements were recorded with an eye-tracker as they read. After reading, they were immediately given a reading comprehension test. Analyses of the eye-tracking data showed that the higher-proficiency L2 learners spent more time on unfamiliar words than the lower-proficiency L2 learners. Furthermore, lower-proficiency L2 learners’ longer processing time on glossed unfamiliar words was related to their higher reading comprehension scores, whereas this relationship was not found in the higher-proficiency group. These results revealed that the contribution of L1 glosses to L2 reading comprehension performance varied across L2 learners’ proficiency levels. Our findings have important implications for second language instruction.

How does background knowledge affect second language reading? An eye movement study

AbstractThere is broad consensus that a reader's background knowledge on a reading topic affects both their reading processes and comprehension in their first language and also in a second language. However, it is unclear whether a reader's background knowledge specifically affects reading comprehension accuracy and reading rate. The extent to which background knowledge facilitates second language reading when compared to a reader's L2 linguistic knowledge is also unclear. Moreover, the mental process accounting for the interaction between general background knowledge, type of linguistic knowledge such as vocabulary or writing system, and L2 reading abilities also need to be identified. Using texts in Mandarin Chinese, this paper investigates these problems with an eye‐movement study administered to 40 L2 Chinese learners with Indo‐European L1s. Results illustrate that an L2 reader's background knowledge about the text can positively impact both their reading comprehension and reading rate; however, the influence on the latter could be topic‐dependent. In more challenging topics, the contribution of background knowledge to reading comprehension could outweigh any single type of linguistic knowledge, even if the target language uses a more cognitively demanding writing system. The connectionist account proposed by the construction–integration theory is suggested to be currently the best theoretical explanation for the mental process behind developing second‐language reading abilities. Pedagogical implications are also considered based on these findings.

Study on the Interactivity of Controlled and Automatic Information Processing in L2 Reading

Study on the Interactivity of Controlled and Automatic Information Processing in L2 Reading

A Review of Meta-Analyses of Correlation Coefficients on L2 Reading Comprehension

Quantitative meta-analyses have gained popularity among L2 reading researchers in recent years. Meta-analyses, especially meta-analyses that investigate the relationships among variables (e.g., meta-analyses of correlation coefficients, meta-analytic structural equation modeling), are well-suited for L2 reading research due to their componential nature. The present study reviews 14 meta-analyses on L2 reading comprehension published between 2010 and 2023, with a focus on their key study features and findings. While all of the 14 meta-analyses examined the relationship between one or more reading-related variables and L2 reading comprehension and yielded substantial convergence in their findings, their research focus and scope also varied widely, leading to some level of diversity in their scope of literature search, methods of analysis, and findings. We review our findings on the convergence and divergence of the study features across the 14 meta-analyses, summarize their key findings, and provide suggestions for future research.

Middle school teachers’ views and recommendations about using translation exercises in L2 reading comprehension classes

Reintroducing translation exercises in EFL classes has been advocated by theorists and scholars in the field. They highlighted the facilitative role of translation and called for paying attention to its position in FL teaching, especially with regard to the four skills (Deller and Riuvolucri, 2002; Atkinson, 1993, 1987; Auerbach, 1993). However, it is noted that little attention has been paid to suggesting practical pedagogical and methodological recommendations of a possible use of translation exercises in EFL teaching. In the present paper, we aim at exploring teachers’ views and recommendations towards using translation exercises in the teaching of reading comprehension to beginners in Moroccan middle schools. To do this, the study employed a qualitative method of research. Despite Covid-19 discouraging conditions and the difficulty of finding teachers who have been teaching English in middle schools continuously, ten teachers who use the same textbook with the same level of learners were interviewed. Analysis revealed that the interviewees are positive about using translation in beginners’ reading comprehension classes on condition that the activities are short and well-controlled, should come in the initial and the final stages of the lesson, particularly with culture-based reading material.

Individual differences in word skipping during reading in English as L2.

The Multilingual Eye-movement Corpus (MECO; Siegelman et al., 2022) contains data from unbalanced bilinguals reading in their first language (L1) for a variety of languages and in English as their second language (L2). We analyzed word skipping in L2 on the basis of five predictors consisting of the frequency and length of the word in L2 and three measures of individual differences. Besides the L2 proficiency of the participant, two novel measures were also constructed: the average amount of skipping in L1 across participants per language and whether an individual reader skips words often in their L1 compared with other L1 readers in the same language. Word skipping in L2 increased for short and high-frequency words, for participants with higher L2 proficiency, for readers whose L1 featured relatively high average skipping rates compared with the other languages, and especially for participants who skip more often in L1 than their peers. All three individual differences interacted with word length such that their influence was more pronounced for longer words. Our results show that readers prefer to maintain a certain level of word skipping resembling how they read in L1. Due to lower L2 than L1 proficiency in unbalanced bilinguals, word skipping in L2 would often be based on a comparatively less advanced stage in parafoveal word recognition.

The Role of Letter-Speech Sound Integration in Native and Second Language Reading: A Study in Native Japanese Readers Learning English.

The automatic activation of letter-speech sound (L-SS) associations is a vital step in typical reading acquisition. However, the contribution of L-SS integration during nonalphabetic native and alphabetic second language (L2) reading remains unclear. This study explored whether L-SS integration plays a similar role in a nonalphabetic language as in alphabetic languages and its contribution to L2 reading among native Japanese-speaking adults with varying English proficiency. A priming paradigm in Japanese and English was performed by presenting visual letters or symbols, followed by auditory sounds. We compared behavioral and event-related responses elicited by congruent letter-sound pairs, incongruent pairs, and baseline condition (symbol-sound pairs). The behavioral experiment revealed shorter RTs in the congruent condition for Japanese and English tasks, suggesting a facilitation effect of congruency. The ERP experiment results showed an increased early N1 response to Japanese congruent pairs compared to corresponding incongruent stimuli at the left frontotemporal electrodes. Interestingly, advanced English learners exhibited greater activities in bilateral but predominantly right-lateralized frontotemporal regions for the congruent condition within the N1 time window. Moreover, the enhancement of P2 response to congruent pairs was observed in intermediate English learners. These findings indicate that, despite deviations from native language processing, advanced speakers may successfully integrate letters and sounds during English reading, whereas intermediate learners may encounter difficulty in achieving L-SS integration when reading L2. Furthermore, our results suggest that L2 proficiency may affect the level of automaticity in L-SS integration, with the right P2 congruency effect playing a compensatory role for intermediate learners.

Diagnostic Assessment in L2 Reading Based on Diagnostic Principles

Diagnostic Assessment in L2 Reading Based on Diagnostic Principles

What influences the comprehensibility of L2 writers' opinion texts by L2 readers? Interactions between textual characteristics and readers’ profiles

This study explored how L2 readers perceive the comprehensibility (i.e., ease of understanding) of L2 opinion texts in terms of reader profiles and text characteristics. We investigated how 100 Japanese learners of L2 English evaluated the comprehensibility of 16 variants of two opinion essays, which differed in lexico-grammatical accuracy, coherence, and rhetorical organization (inductive vs. deductive structure). To delve into the evaluators' backgrounds, exploratory factor analysis was conducted with a view to streamlining background variables. These variables were then compared through a t-test of two groups of readers identified by cluster analysis based on their degree of leniency or strictness. We further identified the influence of specific linguistic features on their evaluations by conducting linear mixed-effects analyses. Our findings reveal that: (1) Some L2 readers were significantly stricter than the L1 readers, whereas others were more lenient; (2) The lenient readers typically began learning English earlier, used it more extensively outside academic settings, and engaged more frequently in online communication compared to their stricter counterparts; and (3) Though disrupted sequences of ideas (coherence errors) were universally detrimental to comprehensibility, lexico-grammatical errors significantly impacted only the strict readers, not the lenient ones.

Raising L2 readers’ awareness of English as a Lingua Franca in a language classroom

A growing body of research has examined the incorporation of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) into Second Language (L2) instruction in various settings. Despite pedagogical innovations in L2 classrooms, little research has embodied retrospective explorations of the impact of ELF interventions with concrete instruments to measure the exact change in learners’ attitudes, awareness, and knowledge. This study investigated how the ELF intervention can be integrated into an L2 classroom at a university to engage pre-service teachers in L2 reading and to increase their ELF awareness. Participants were divided into an experimental group (n = 35) and a control group (n = 26). The experimental group underwent a 12-week ELF intervention, including ELF awareness-raising readings and discussions in the Reading Skills course. The control group received instruction based on the Reading course content. This study adopted a collective case study design using the data from reading comprehension tests, reflection papers, focus group interviews, and an open-ended questionnaire. The results revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in L2 reading comprehension. The ELF intervention had a significant impact on the experimental group’s conceptualizing of the ELF paradigm, developing attitudes, raising linguistic and cultural awareness, and increasing L2 reading motivation.

Language anxiety does not affect the growth of L2 reading achievement: The latent growth curve model approach

AbstractSecond language (L2) anxiety has been proposed to play a causal role in L2 achievement. However, most studies have failed to acknowledge confounding variables that may be relevant to the study of anxiety and L2 achievement or to investigate the causal effect of L2 anxiety using longitudinal data. For these reasons, we investigated the effect of L1 reading achievement, L2 aptitude, and L2 anxiety as covariates on the growth of L2 reading achievement across three time points. We used the latent growth curve model (LGCM) to estimate the growth trajectory of US secondary school students’ L2 reading growth in Spanish (N = 307) over three school years. The findings showed that students’ L1 reading achievement and L2 aptitude strongly and significantly predicted L2 reading achievement growth. However, L2 anxiety did not predict L2 reading achievement growth. Findings suggest that growth in L2 reading achievement depends on the language-related skills used for L1 reading and the language skills that comprise L2 aptitude, but not on anxiety. Similar to past cross-sectional studies, L2 anxiety related only to initial levels of L2 reading achievement, suggesting that anxiety reflects students’ initial experience of L2 reading but not their L2 achievement.

An Analysis of Influencing Factors on Bilingual Reading of Second Language Learners

Proficiency in second-language (L2) reading is an important skill essential in an increasingly globalized world. Previous research has often addressed disparate elements influencing L2 reading proficiency without aggregating them into a comprehensive framework. This paper seeks to fill this gap by systematically collecting and examining the various factors that impact the ability to read in a second language. The primary objective of this research is to compile an exhaustive list of factors affecting L2 reading and to analyze their respective influences. By categorizing these factors into external and internal dimensions, this study aims to provide a holistic view of the ecosystem within which L2 reading comprehension develops and operates. Employing a qualitative literature review methodology, this research meticulously synthesizes existing studies and theoretical perspectives on L2 reading. The factors influencing L2 reading proficiency are divided into two broad categories: external and internal. External factors encompass educational contexts, socioeconomic influences, the role of technological tools and digital literacy, as well as cultural and contextual elements, and the characteristics of reading materials. Internal factors are identified as cognitive processes, the effects of language transfer and interference, and the roles of motivation and attitude in L2 reading. Each factor is analyzed for its unique contribution and interplay with other elements within the L2 reading process.

Bilingual parafoveal processing: Children and adults preprocess orthographic information of the upcoming word during sentence reading in their first and second language.

Readers of different ages and across different languages routinely process information of upcoming words in a sentence, before their eyes move to fixate them directly (parafoveal processing). However, there is inconsistent evidence of similar parafoveal processing in a reader's second language (L2). In this eye movement study, the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975a) was used to test whether parafoveal processing of orthographic information is an integral part of both beginning and proficient L2 reading. The eye movements of beginning L2-learners (n = 53, aged 11-14 years) and highly proficient L2-users (n = 56, aged 19-65 years) were recorded while they read sentences in their first language (L1) German and L2 English. Sentences each contained a cognate target word (e.g., English: tunnel, German: Tunnel). The parafoveal preview of the targets either (a) preserved the spelling and meaning of the target (identity condition), (b) preserved letter identities but transposed the position of two adjacent letters (transposed-letter [TL] condition, e.g., tunenl/Tunenl), or substituted the identity of two adjacent letters (substituted-letter condition, e.g., tunocl/Tunocl). TL previews elicited longer early first-pass reading times than identity previews in both L1 and L2 reading in children and adults, suggesting that letter position was processed parafoveally. Substituted-letter previews resulted in longer reading times than TL previews in children and adults in L1 and L2, suggesting that letter identity information was processed independently of position information. These results suggest that letter position and identity information are extracted from the parafovea during L1 and L2 reading, facilitating word recognition in children and adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Towards a Systematic Inclusion of Translation-based Exercises in Beginners’ L2 Reading Comprehension Classes

A possible judicious use of L1 in EFL teaching has recently been approved on the grounds that students’ first language cannot be totally banned for it can still provide help in FL teaching and learning. However, little has been suggested as to how to reinvest L1 in a reasonable pedagogical manner which guarantees students’ exposure to the target language and benefits the learning process. In this paper, a methodological model, wherein a limited number of short L1-related exercises are mixed with common comprehension activities in L2-reading comprehension classes of beginners, is proposed. To examine the effectiveness of this systematic strategy, 63 beginners of FL learning in middle schools were exposed to translation-related exercises in the three phases of the reading comprehension lesson. To gather data, 13 classes of qualitative observation were carried out in which a checklist was used. Then, the collected data was analyzed thematically. Results showed that including translation-related exercises in L2 reading classes in a controlled systematic manner was a source of motivation, increased self-confidence and performance improvement for beginners.