L2 Processing Research Articles

Native and non-native language contexts differently modulate mood-driven electrodermal activity

Bilingual speakers have been consistently observed to experience reduced emotional sensitivity to their non-native (L2) relative to native (L1) language, particularly to the negatively-valenced L2 content. Yet, little is known about how the L1 and L2 contexts physiologically influence bilinguals’ affective states, such as moods. Here, we show that bilinguals may be less physiologically sensitive to mood changes in the L2 compared to the L1 context. Polish–English bilinguals operating in either the L1 or the L2 mode (elicited via reading L1 and L2 sentences) watched positive and negative mood-inducing films while their electrodermal activity was measured. We observed a greater number of skin conductance responses in the negative compared to positive mood condition in the L1 context only, indexing decreased sensitivity to mood changes in the L2 relative to the L1 mode in bilinguals. Also, skin conductance amplitudes were overall increased in the L2 compared to the L1 context, pointing to increased cognitive load when operating in L2. These findings together suggest that bilinguals experience decreased sensitivity to mood changes in their less dominant language due to L2 processing requiring greater cognitive engagement.

Stereophotogrammetric approaches to multi-segmental kinematics of the thoracolumbar spine: a systematic review

BackgroundSpine disorders are becoming more prevalent in today’s ageing society. Motion abnormalities have been linked to the prevalence and recurrence of these disorders. Various protocols exist to measure thoracolumbar spine motion, but a standard multi-segmental approach is still missing. This study aims to systematically evaluate the literature on stereophotogrammetric motion analysis approaches to quantify thoracolumbar spine kinematics in terms of measurement reliability, suitability of protocols for clinical application and clinical significance of the resulting functional assessment.MethodsElectronic databases (PubMed, Scopus and ScienceDirect) were searched until February 2022. Studies published in English, investigating the intersegmental kinematics of the thoracolumbar spine using stereophotogrammetric motion analysis were identified. All information relating to measurement reliability; measurement suitability and clinical significance was extracted from the studies identified.ResultsSeventy-four studies met the inclusion criteria. 33% of the studies reported on the repeatability of their measurement. In terms of suitability, only 35% of protocols were deemed suitable for clinical application. The spinous processes of C7, T3, T6, T12, L1, L3 and L5 were the most widely used landmarks. The spine segment definitions were, however, found to be inconsistent among studies. Activities of daily living were the main tasks performed. Comparable results between protocols are however still missing.ConclusionThe literature to date offers various stereophotogrammetric protocols to quantify the multi-segmental motion of the thoracolumbar spine, without a standard guideline being followed. From a clinical point of view, the approaches are still limited. Further research is needed to define a precise motion analysis protocol in terms of segment definition and clinical relevance.

L2 processing facilitation by constructional similarity: beyond word order correspondence

L2 processing facilitation by constructional similarity: beyond word order correspondence

Involvement of the sensorimotor system in less advanced L2 processing: Evidence from a semantic category decision task.

There is increasing evidence indicating that the sensorimotor system is involved in advanced L2 processing, which raises the question of what role sensorimotor information plays in the course of less advanced L2 comprehension. In the current study, two experiments were conducted using a lexical decision task (LDT) and semantic category task (SCT). The results showed that, in the LDT, a task more likely to result in participants making judgments based on the physical properties of words (e.g., familiarity, orthography), "up" words (e.g., sun, plane) did not result in faster upward than downward responses, and "down" words (e.g., tunnel, cave) also did not result in faster downward than upward responses. In the SCT, compatibility effects were found; specifically, searching for the up target after "up" words was faster than after "down" words and searching for the bottom target after "down" words was faster than after "upward-pointing" words. Hence, we concluded that L2 sensorimotor association, at least for L2 with low proficiency, not automatic in nature and is dependent upon deeper semantic task demands.

Morphological and morphometric studies on the axial skeleton of the sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii gratus)

BackgroundAnatomical features of the skeleton of wild animals contribute largely to their adaptation. A dearth of information on the skeletal anatomy of the sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii gratus) necessitated this study. Two adult sitatunga carcasses weighing 54 kg and 57 kg were obtained after post-mortem examination. Bone preparation was achieved through cold water maceration protocol.ResultThe tympanic bulla was elongated and massive, resulting in the rudimentary appearance of the styloid and muscular processes of the temporal bone. The lacrimal bone had a somewhat triangular presentation with the lacrimal foramen on the caudal border of the facial surface while its dorsal border formed the lateral margin of the frontal sinus. There was no observable lacrimal fossa on this facial surface of the lacrimal bone. The facial tubercle was absent. The vertebral column formula was C7 T13 L6 S4 C10-14, and the atlas dorsal median tubercle was smooth, devoid of ridges. The spinous process of the axis extended the entire arch length to hang little above the odontoid process. The thoracic spinous processes were oriented dorso-caudally from T1 to T11; spinous process of T12 was vertical, while that of T13 was oriented dorso-cranially. The length of the transverse process of L1 and L6 were the same, and smaller than the length of those of L2-L5. There was incomplete fusion of sacral spinous processes. Three dorsal and ventral sacral foramina were identified laterally on each side of the vertebrae. The ribs were 26 in number (13 pairs). The sternum was comprised of 5 sternabrae separated by intersternal cartilage. The average number of bones of the axial skeleton was 75. Morphometric in formation included the length of skull, mandible and ribs; body length of vertebrae and spinous process length and height of the vertebrae.ConclusionThis study recorded anatomical features and biometric information on axial skeletal bones of the Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii gratus) thereby providing baseline data for future biomedical, archaeological and comparative skeletal anatomical studies.

Structural priming and cross-linguistic influence in L2 comprehension of Dutch relative clauses and PP-attachments: Differences between German and English learners of Dutch

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions: This study investigated cross-linguistic influence and structural priming in L2 learners’ comprehension of Dutch relative clauses (RCs) and PP-attachments. While PP-attachments are structurally ambiguous in all three languages, RCs are structurally ambiguous in Dutch and German, but not in English. Design/Methodology/Approach: L1 speakers of German ( n = 18) and English ( n = 19) completed a structural priming task in their L2 Dutch with a pre-test, a priming phase, an immediate post-test, and a delayed post-test 1 day later. Data and Analysis: The data were analysed using t tests and repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). In the pre-test, L1 speakers of German showed a clear parsing preference for subject RCs and a slight preference for VP-attachment, whereas L1 speakers of English showed a clear parsing preference for object RCs and a slight preference for NP-attachment. The English L1 speakers were sensitive to structural priming, but only when primed with subject RCs and VP-attachments. This priming was still visible 1 day later. The German L1 speakers were not sensitive to the priming manipulation. Findings/Conclusion: The pre-test showed that L1 parsing preferences influence L2 processing; the structural priming effects in the English L1 speakers showed an inverse frequency effect that is based on experiences from both L1 and L2; the delayed post-test showed that structural priming can be seen as a form of implicit learning. Originality: This is the first structural priming study that compared two groups of L2 speakers on two different structures. Significance/Implications: Structural priming can be seen as a form of implicit learning in which experienced frequencies from both L1 and L2 give rise to a developing shared syntax.

Prediction in bilingual sentence processing: How prediction differs in a later learned language from a first language

AbstractThis review provides an update on what we know about differences in prediction in a first and second language after several years of extensive research. It shows when L1/L2 differences are most likely to occur and provides an explanation as to why they occur. For example, L2 speakers may capitalize more on semantic information for prediction than L1 speakers, or possibly they do not make predictions due to differences in the weighting of cues. A different weighting of cues can be the result of prior experience from the L1 and/or the prior experience in an experiment which affects L1 and L2 processing to a different extent. Overall, prediction in L2 processing often emerges later and/or is weaker than in L1 processing. Because L2 processing is generally slower, L1/L2 differences are likely to occur at certain levels of prediction, most notably at the form level, in line with a prediction-by-production mechanism.

Fine structure of the atomic scattering factors near the iridium L-edges

We measured the reflectivity of an Athena silicon pore optics sample coated with 10-nm thick iridium near the iridium L-edges (L3 , L2, and L1) in a step of 1.5 eV. The derived atomic scattering factor f2 was similar to a shape of the absorption coefficient μ near L3 and L2 obtained by previous x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) measurements. The fine structures of f2 of L3 and L2 can be represented by a strong sharp line referred to as a white line (WL) and two weak lines at center energies of ∼17 and ∼31 eV from each edge energy. The branching ratio (L3 / L2) of the WL is >2, which reflects the initial core-electron states available for the L2 (2p1/2) and L3 (2p3/2) processes, and the ratio remains high to the energy of +7 . 5 eV from WL. The fine structure seen in L1 also has two weak lines, which were seen in XAS at L1-edge. Our measurements near L3, L2, and L1 edges demonstrated a different technique to provide atomic structural information as XAS. The ground calibration to measure fine structures near the edges may potentially be simplified using f2 estimated based on μ.

An “asset” rather than “deficit” view of second-language (L2) speech

This talk will present the rationale and empirical foundation for an “asset-” rather than “deficit-based” framework for understanding bilingual speech communication. In this framework, first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) speech are viewed as distinct speech styles each of which is shaped by four interacting sources of influence: (1) the individual talker’s vocal tract and ideolectal speech patterns (“trait” characteristics), (2) the sound structure of the language being spoken (“structural” characteristics), (3) the sound structure of other language(s), if any, in the talker’s repertoire (“repertoire” characteristics), and (4) general patterns of dominant versus non-dominant language function (“mode” characteristics). This “Trait-Structure-Repertoire-Mode” perspective contrasts with “deficit” models of the L1-L2 relationship in which metaphors of vectors (L1 source to L2 target) or filters (L1 filter for L2 production and processing) set up a hierarchy with L1 and L2 as “standard” and “deviant,” respectively. While still acknowledging L1 advantages in communication speed, accuracy, and ease, this perspective emphasizes the confluence of language-general properties (Trait and Mode) and language-specific properties (Structure and Repertoire) for speech production and perception by bilinguals in both/all of their languages.

Cross-language Generalization in Bilingual Aphasia: Influence of Manner of Second Language Acquisition

ABSTRACT Background Language treatment for bilinguals with aphasia has been shown to result in gains in both the treated language and the untreated language (i.e., cross-language generalization). However, cross-language generalization is not consistently found. This inconsistency may be due to several factors, such as the age of acquisition of, and proficiency in, each language. One often-overlooked factor that may influence whether cross-language generalization occurs is the manner in which bilinguals learned their second language (L2): in a formal educational context (explicitly) or naturalistically through exposure to the language (implicitly). Prior research suggests that implicit L2 learning results in greater overlap in the representation of the first language (L1) and L2 in the brain, particularly for grammar, compared to explicit learning. In contrast, lexical processing in L1 and L2 is proposed to rely more on shared brain regions regardless of the manner of L2 acquisition. Greater overlap should provide a greater likelihood of cross-language generalization effects from treatment. Aims The goal of this study was to determine how the manner of acquisition of L2 may affect cross-language generalization following treatment in L2 separately targeting the lexicon (object naming) and grammar (sentence construction). Methods & Procedures Two Spanish-English bilinguals with aphasia each completed two treatment phases in English of 2-4 weeks each, in succession, with one week between them: semantic feature analysis (SFA) targeting object naming, and Verb Network Strengthening Treatment (VNeST) targeting verb retrieval and sentence construction. Pre- and post-treatment assessments and weekly probes were completed for each phase. Participant P1 learned English explicitly in an educational setting, while participant P2 learned English implicitly. Outcomes & Results As predicted, P2 showed cross-language generalization after verb/grammar treatment (VNeST) whereas P1 did not. However, contrary to the prediction that both participants should show cross-language generalization after noun treatment (SFA), only P1 showed cross-language generalization of object naming. Conclusions Cross-language generalization was observed for both participants but for different aspects of language. The findings suggest that naturalistic second language learning may lead to stronger links between languages in the grammatical system, whereas formal second language learning may lead to stronger links between languages in the lexical-semantic system. Future research should further explore the effects of manner of acquisition as a predictor of language co-activation and cross-language treatment generalization in bilinguals with aphasia.

Danish-English Bilinguals’ Cognate Processing in L1 and L2 Visual Lexical Decision Tasks

Previous research and the BIA+ model support the hypothesis of language nonselective access during bilingual word recognition with language-ambiguous words like cognates organized in two distinct lexical representations. This paper adds to the existing literature by investigating how task demands and language proficiency influence cognate processing. Twenty-six Danish-English bilinguals with upper-intermediate to advanced L2 proficiencies performed four visual lexical decision tasks in which stimulus list composition (pure or mixed) and target language (L1 or L2) were varied. This study thus distinguishes itself from other studies by employing a within-subjects design to investigate a bilingual’s two languages. Significant cognate inhibition effects were found in the L2 mixed language condition while none of the other three tasks yielded significant results. Especially the absence of cognate facilitation effects in the L2 pure language condition was remarkable given the findings of previous literature. With reference to the BIA+ model’s assumptions of differing resting level activations for L1 and L2 lexical representations, the impact of L2 proficiency on cognate processing was tested in a post-hoc analysis dividing participants into two groups. This analysis revealed cognate facilitation effects for L2 upper-intermediate bilinguals in the L2 pure language condition while the results of the L1 tasks for both groups of bilinguals remained non-significant. The results therefore suggest that within-subject cognate processing is modulated by L2 proficiency in certain circumstances.

Frequency and predictability effects in first and second language of different script bilinguals.

Reading efficiently in a second language (L2) is a crucial skill, but it is not universally achieved. Here we ask whether L2 reading efficiency is better captured as a language specific skill or whether it is mostly shared across L1 and L2, relying on general language abilities. To this end, we examined word frequency and predictability effects in sentence reading, and tested the same readers in L1 and L2, recording participants' eye-movements. Participants were 57 undergraduate bilingual speakers of Hebrew and English, languages that use different scripts, allowing for a clearer distinction between L1 and L2 processing. Both word frequency and word predictability effects were more pronounced in participants' L2 than in the L1, suggesting that both lower level and higher-order processes in reading are sensitive to language proficiency. Further, frequency effects in the L2 were linked with L2 proficiency but not general language abilities, and L2 predictability effects were not associated with either variable. Finally, readers' frequency and predictability effects in L1 and L2 were not associated with each other. Taken together, these results suggest that for different-script bilinguals, efficient reading in the L2 is a highly specific skill, dependent upon proficiency in that language, and drawing less on L1 and general language ability. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Figurativeness Matters in the Second Language Processing of Collocations: Evidence From a Self‐Paced Reading Experiment

AbstractThis study reports on a self‐paced reading experiment exploring whether the figurativeness of collocations affects L2 processing of collocations. The participants were 40 English native speakers and 44 Chinese‐speaking English foreign language learners (including doctoral, postgraduate, and undergraduate students). To ensure that the effect emerged from the figurativeness of collocations rather than other item‐related confounds, this study added a literal–literal comparison (e.g., choose a career vs. choose a house) as a control to the experimental figurative–literal comparison (e.g., build a career vs. build a house). Results showed that L2 speakers processed figurative collocations more slowly than literal collocation controls but native speakers did not. Importantly, this processing cost for figurative collocations in L2 speakers varied by L2 proficiency but not phrase familiarity. We discuss the results in terms of the dual‐route model of formulaic and novel language processing and also incorporate them into the literal salience model of bilingual figurative processing.

The processing of the ambiguous object pronoun in German monolingual and highly proficient L2 speakers with L1 Georgian

Aims and objectives: The current study examines the role of grammatical and positional parallelism on ambiguous German pronoun resolution in monolingual speakers and highly proficient L2 speakers with L1 Georgian. In particular, the study asks whether an object pronoun ihn in a sentence initial position could refer to the non-subject antecedent in a preceding subject–verb–object sentence. Furthermore, it investigates whether L1 and L2 speakers show similar preferences when resolving ambiguous object pronouns. Methodology: Two visual world eye-tracking and two offline experiments were conducted with L1 and L2 speakers of German. During the eye-tracking session, the task was simply to look and listen, while in the offline test, participants were required to decide on the assumed referent of the ambiguous pronoun. Data and analysis: Linear-mixed effect models were applied to the eye-movement data. Two-sample t tests were used in the analysis of the offline data. Findings and conclusions: Eye-movement results revealed a bias toward the subject antecedent in L1 speakers, while the L2 speakers showed a non-subject preference when resolving the referent of the object pronoun. The offline experiments supported the eye-tracking findings of both groups, particularly as regards the role of grammatical parallelism in the resolution of ambiguous pronouns by the L2 speakers. These findings are interpreted in the context of language-specific processing strategies in anaphora resolution. It appears that L1 and L2 speakers may be using different information-structural cues to resolve ambiguous pronouns. Concretely, a less strongly internalized knowledge of the target language or the influence of the first language may produce alternative processing mechanisms in L2 speakers. Originality: This study fills the research gap on ambiguous object pronoun resolution of L1 and L2 speakers of German. Implications: The findings of this study add additional information to the growing body of research into pronoun resolution. It focuses on the resolution of the German object pronoun within an information-structural framework of language processing in L1 and L2.

Wh-Dependency Processing in a Naturalistic Exposure Context: Sensitivity to Abstract Syntactic Structure in High-Working-Memory L2 Speakers

AbstractThis study replicates Felser and Roberts (2007), which used a cross-modal picture priming task to examine indirect-object dependency processing in classroom L2 learners. The replication focuses on early L2 learners with extensive naturalistic L2 exposure (n = 22)—an understudied group in the literature—and investigates whether these learners, in contrast to those in the original study, reactivate the moved element at its original position in the sentence. Bayesian multilevel regression is used to analyze the data. The results suggest that higher-working-memory participants did reactivate the moved element at its structural origin. By extending previous research to an understudied group, the study contributes to our knowledge regarding sensitivity to abstract syntactic structure in L2 processing.

Bilingual processing of verbal and constructional information in English dative constructions: effects of cross-linguistic influence

AbstractThis study investigated the role of cross-linguistic influence in L2 learners’ integration of a verb and a construction during online English sentence processing. In a self-paced reading task, L1-English speakers and Chinese-L1 learners of English read the English double-object and prepositional dative constructions with verbs whose Chinese translation equivalents are either compatible or incompatible with each dative form. When including only a subset of trials for which participants provided expected translations for the target sentences (i.e., translating the English prepositional dative construction into a Chinese prepositional dative sentence and translating the English double-object construction into a Chinese double-object sentence), the effect of cross-linguistic influence emerged only in a certain type of verbs. When including all trials in the analysis, we found the effect of cross-linguistic influence for all verb types. These results provide some evidence that the cross-linguistic activation of verbs can influence verb-construction integration in L2 processing. The study highlights how bilingual co-activation of verbs extends beyond the lexical and structural levels to influence the integration of multiple sources of information.

Hemispheric dominance of metaphor processing for Chinese-English bilinguals: DVF and ERPs evidence

This study investigated whether metaphors are predominantly processed in the right or left hemisphere when using Chinese and English metaphors in Chinese bilingual speakers. The role of familiarity in processing of metaphorical and literal expressions in both the first and second language was studied with brain-event-related potentials using a divided-visual-field paradigm. The participants were asked to perform plausibility judgments for Chinese (L1) and English (L2) familiar and unfamiliar metaphorical and literal sentences. The results obtained using parameter-free cluster permutation statistics suggest a different pattern of brain responses for metaphor processing in L1 and L2, and that both metaphoricity and familiarity have an effect on the brain response pattern of both Chinese and English metaphor processing. However, the brain responses were distributed bilaterally across hemispheres, suggesting no clear evidence for lateralization of processing of metaphorical meanings. This is inconsistent with the Graded Salience Hypothesis and Fine-Coarse Semantic Coding Theory, which posited a right hemisphere advantage of non-salient and coarse semantic processing.

Cross-linguistic influences of L1 on L2 morphosyntactic processing: An fNIRS study

This study examined how the morphological typology of second language (L2) learners' first language (L1) affected neural processing of L2 morphosyntactic knowledge. We used functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to examine adult L2 learners’ processing of English Subject-Verb number agreement (e.g., duck swims, ducks swim) during a picture-sentence matching task. Two English learner groups with contrasting L1s, Spanish (with rich inflectional morphology, n = 16) and Mandarin (with a lexical morphology, n = 18), were compared to native English speakers (n = 19). Both L2-learner groups demonstrated comparable accuracy on the picture-sentence matching task. However, neural results revealed L1 influence on L2 morphosyntactic processing. Mandarin-speaking English L2 learners showed greater neural activity in the left middle temporal gyrus (L-MTG) for singular (e.g., the duck swims) versus plural sentences (e.g., the ducks swim). Mandarin relies on semantic, rather than inflectional, information to infer number and L-MTG is involved in lexical-semantic processing, suggesting L1 influence on L2 inflectional processing. Spanish-speaking English L2 learners showed greater neural activity in areas including the right MTG and prefrontal cortex for the plural versus singular sentences whereas native English speakers showed greater activity for singular versus plural sentences. The plural form is morphologically marked in Spanish and greater neural activation for the plural rather than singular form suggests L1 influence. Importantly, cross-linguistic influences were only observed at the neural level, revealing that different neural activation patterns underpin similar behavioral results. Both L2-learner groups showed different patterns of neural activation corresponding to the specific linguistic features of their L1, indicating that L2 processing is affected by L1 characteristics in linguistically principled ways. This study advances our understanding of how morphosyntactically-distinct languages are organized and processed in adult L2 learners.

Envisioning multilingualism in source-based writing in L1, L2, and L3: The relation between source use and text quality.

In this article, we report on a study that investigates how master’s students consult external sources for reading-to-write integrated tasks in their L1 (Dutch), L2 (English), and L3 (French). Two hundred and eighty master’s students in professional communication wrote synthesis texts based on three external sources, including a report, a web text, and a newspaper article in their L1 (Dutch), and in L2 (English), or L3 (French) at two moments of measurement, which were separated by an interval of 6 months. Their source use activities during the writing process were registered using Inputlog – a keylogging program. Inputlog enabled us to determine the amount of time the writers spent composing their main texts and consulting the sources (when the source consultation activities took place during the writing process, which sources were consulted most frequently, and how frequently the writers transitioned between the various sources). Final text quality was assessed holistically using pairwise comparisons (D-pac, now Comproved). Confirmatory factor analysis indicated three components that could describe source use processes in L1, L2, and L3 writing: (a) initial reading time, (b) source interaction, and (c) variance of source use throughout the writing process. Within-subject comparisons revealed that there were no improvements in the students’ text quality in L1, L2, and L3 over an academic year. Structural equation modeling indicated that the source use approach, particularly source interaction, is related to text quality, but only in L1 and L3. We provide further explanations for this variation based on language proficiency, temporal distribution of writing process, and individual differences.

Bilinguals are less susceptible to the bias blind spot in their second language

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Extant research suggests that processing information in a second language (L2) affects decision-making, possibly by affecting metacognition. We hypothesized that processing in L2 will reduce the bias blind spot effect, whereby people (on average) erroneously think that they are less susceptible to biases than others. Design/methodology/approach: In Experiment 1, participants assessed their susceptibility and the susceptibility of others to 13 psychological and 7 economic biases, in either L1 (Polish) or L2 (English). In Experiment 2, participants assessed the 7 most severe bias blind spots from Experiment 1. Data and analysis: We recruited 500 participants for each experiment via Prolific (832 overall, after exclusions). The main hypothesis and moderators were tested via mixed-model regressions. Findings/conclusions: In Experiment 1, participants showed an overall bias blind spot, which decreased in the L2 condition, but only for psychological biases. In Experiment 2, we replicated the L2-bias blind spot attenuation effect. An exploratory analysis suggests that the effect of L2 is the result of both lower ratings of other-susceptibility and higher ratings of self-susceptibility. Originality: Our study provides unique insights into how L2 affects metacognition. We are the first to study how the use of L2 can attenuate the bias blind spot. Our findings provide rare support for the psychological distancing (“birds-eye view”) explanation for the foreign language effect. Significance/implications: Bilinguals using L2 showed some resilience to the bias blind spot, suggesting metacognition is language dependent.