L2 Classroom Research Articles

Gaze and other non-verbal resources in student clarification requests: a micro-analytic investigation

ABSTRACT In addressing vocabulary explanations in language classroom settings, a growing number of studies have examined the different ways teachers respond to the vocabulary explanation requests made by students in second language (L2) classrooms. Relatively lacking is an investigation into the nature of vocabulary explanation requests made by students in L2 classroom settings. Based on 14 hours of (50 minutes each) video-recorded data collected in an adult L2 Oral Communication classroom, we discovered that students incorporate gaze and other non-verbal resources in their requests for the clarifications of L2 vocabulary items in three distinct ways: (1) using gaze and gesture with formulaic expressions; (2) using gaze and mimics with the repetition of problematic vocabulary item; and (3) using gaze without talk. Findings contribute to the existing literature with a specification of gaze and other non-verbal resources in the problematisation of vocabulary items and formulation of vocabulary explanation requests.

Corpus Routes and Experiments in Language Teaching

Corpus quantitative approach in teaching, which is of growing interest, entails some revision of the L2 vocabulary selection procedures and provides solutions for a wide range of practical problems. The focus throughout is on the discussion of research on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of language which both teaching content and language acquisition practice could draw on. This research regards human language as a rank distribution, which has serious implications on quantitative aspect of learner’s vocabulary. We also looked into the ways to factor in the data from a small professional discourse corpus in order to target the units that have the greatest statistical prominence. Both BNC and our own collection of texts are explored. The study also elaborates on academic writing cohesive devices and grammar patterns introduction, which is approached through concordancing corpus strings to (i) provide frequency evidence and (ii) introduce a contrast in usage in various corpus genres. Striking differences that are evidenced by the frequency lists could be related not only to register, but also to the choice and instances of academic cohesive clusters which are favoured by the apprentice writers and the expert writers. With the aim of capitalizing on corpus approach a number of small-scale corpus research tasks were developed. This study also uses corpus tools and data to give a seemingly subjective phenomenon of hedging some quantitative measurement. While experimenting on corpus in the classroom, the attention of learners was drawn to various means of hedging, such as lexical bundles or down-toners that manifest themselves as important communicative strategies. Thus, corpus was used to inform both the language instructor and the student in the classroom to look in detail at differences in the use of lexical and grammatical units in different varieties of language, address contrasting register variations, and readily provide contemporary professionally relevant examples of actual language usage. It has to be noted that university students have a tendency not to perceive register violations as language errors on a par with those of grammar, lexis or punctuation. Hence, corpus investigation as raising awareness tool also proved to be an effective teaching material generator. Nowadays syllabi have the opportunity to be rather sensitive to the quantitative evidence that corpora offer us; what is more, as a result of this study, we would conclude that university students are responsive to the small-scale investigation of register differences, lexico-grammatical frequency and patterning, which have been brought directly into the L2 classroom.

Oral corrective feedback and learner uptake in L2 classrooms: Non-formulaic vs. formulaic errors

An extensive number of corrective feedback (CF) studies have examined learners’ errors with grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling (non-formulaic forms) and established an association between learners’ uptake of CF and their second language development. However, learners’ errors with formulaic sequences (FSs) comprising idioms, collocations, lexical bundles, and compounds (formulaic forms) have received scant attention in CF research. This study investigated any associations among formulaic vs. non-formulaic errors, CF types, uptake, and successful uptake rate by drawing on the audio-recordings of 36 hours of primarily meaning-oriented teacher–learner interactions in three advanced English as a foreign language classes. The findings demonstrated that learners made more errors with FSs, whereas CF was provided significantly more often for their non-formulaic errors. Learners’ non-formulaic and formulaic errors were treated significantly more frequently through recasts and elicitations, respectively. Uptake and successful uptake rate was significantly higher when CF was provided for learners’ formulaic errors than non-formulaic ones, which could be explained by relatively greater saliency, significance, and noticeability of FSs. The findings of log-linear analyses indicated that uptake and successful uptake rate varied depending on formulaic vs. non-formulaic foci of errors and CF types.

PRAGMATICS AS A PART OF LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

Greeting- is expressive speech act, and refers to socio-pragmatics. The typical L2 classroom usually provides too little examples of this extremely important phase of communication. Just knowing the words of a language is only one part of speaking it, it is equally important to know how and where to use and interpret them. Greeting is a speech act that child is taught explicitly in his native language. The importance and communicative function of greeting is often understood as subordinate. It means that greetings are used to support the ultimate goal of communication. Language classrooms often neglect teaching greeting appropriately, there is no enough attention to the role of greeting, but greetings play a great role in a different cultures and communities and may affect the ultimate goal of communication. The form of the greetings depends on the context, and context here considers the relationship between the people. Success in delivering greetings appropriately can be taught and assessed in a classroom context, but the general aim is to teach students how to behave themselves in unexpected situations in the real world.

How Teacher Comments Influence Students’ Motivation for Writing

Developing students’ writing ability is known as one of the major goals to be achieved in English teaching and teacher comments are an essential aspect of the English writing course. According to social-cognitive theory, people’s self-efficacy beliefs in their skills and ability to complete tasks influence their motivation. However, there is an inconclusive discussion about the effectiveness of teacher comments on student essays in L1 classrooms; and there is an obvious lack of research about the effects of teacher comments on the motivation of EFL students for writing. Primary data for this study are the subject students’ answers to questionnaires, their responses in the interviews, their essays, and the teachers’ written comments on the students’ essays. The researcher finds out that the teacher should affix much attention to their immediate comments, both written and verbal, which can affect writing apprehension and students’ self-efficacy beliefs toward writing.

RESEARCHING LINGUISTIC ARGUMENTATION WITH LINGUISTIC STRATEGIES IN GRAMMATICAL KNOWLEDGE OF L1

Since the beginning of the twenty first century, there has been a renewed interest in grammar teaching in L1 classrooms, both in research and in policymaking (Hudson & Walmsley, 2005; Locke, 2010). This interest has become even more apparent in recent years since the well-rehearsed argument emerging in the 1970s that grammar education has no impact on literacy development (e.g., Andrews, 2005; Elley, Barham, Lamb, & Wylie, 1975; Graham & Perin, 2007) is starting to crumble.

Language-related Episodes Patterns Engendered in L2 Classrooms: Pedagogical Translation Tasks Versus Monolingual Writing Tasks

This classroom-based longitudinal study examines the language-related episodes (LREs) engendered by pedagogical translation tasks and monolingual tasks. Specifically, the study investigated the discourse features and discussion patterns of LREs yielded in discussions of the two different types of tasks in L2 classrooms. The present study was conducted in an authentic class environment and consisted of two experiments. One group participated in class discussions after being assigned L1-L2 translation tasks, while the other took part in class discussions after working on L2 writing tasks. The LREs elicited in the two group’s class discussions over ten sessions of class discussions were scrutinized. Inductive thematic analysis shows that LREs produced in the concerned experimental tasks included ‘concern-based LREs’ and six different types of ‘response-based LREs’. Striking difference was observed in LRE patterns produced by the translation group and the writing group. The findings revealed that pedagogical translation tasks engendered LREs with deeper level of engagement and more enduring discussions than L2 monolingual tasks. The concern-based and response-based LREs arisen in this study contributes to a new framework for LRE categorization.

Contributions of Motivation to Read in L2, Proficiency and L1 Reading Strategy Awareness to L2 Reading

L2 learners, when reading in L2 have access to their L1 literacy as a repertoire of reading strategy in L1. The main purpose of this study was to investigate to what extent awareness of reading strategies in L1 (strategy) and general proficiency in L2 (proficiency) contribute to reading comprehension ability in L2 (reading) and how it would differ among Iranian EFL learners with different degrees of motivation to read in L2 (motivation). To this purpose, a reading strategy inventory assessing strategic reading behavior in L1, a test of general English proficiency, a reading comprehension test in L2, and a motivation to read questionnaire in L2 were distributed among 289 university students selected conveniently at a Teacher Education University. To gain a deeper insight into the issue, a structured interview was also devised with thirty purposively selected participants subsequent to quantitative analysis of the data. Pearson correlation and Regression analysis as well as a two-way ANOVA were used to analyze the collected data. The results showed that proficiency accounted much more strongly for the participants' reading score variance than strategy and motivation. Additionally, it was found that strategy and motivation contributed nearly similarly to reading, showing that motivation is fairly as important as strategy in predicting reading. It was also found that the role of proficiency in the participants with low and high levels of motivation was significant. When motivation is high or low, proficiency has strong effects on reading. When strategy is low, motivation has strong effect on reading and when proficiency is medium, strategy has a strong effect on reading. This study has implications for EFL classroom practitioners and L2 pedagogy to adjust instruction to individual learner profiles.

A CASE STUDY ON WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE IN ENGLISH IN THE IRANIAN TERTIARY EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT

Willingness to communicate (WTC) in English is specifically important because L2 (foreign/second language) communication is considered to be a key factor in L2 learning. When the opportunity to speak English arises, there are generally two options: speaking or avoiding it. Several factors might exert influence on the choice of either option by different individuals. In this vein, the current study investigated the underlying factors that lead to (un)willingness on the part of Iranian EFL (English as a Foreign Language) tertiary students. Through a purposive sampling procedure, this classroom-based case study recruited and examined 10 EFL learners in Iran over a period of three weeks. Data were collected employing semi-structured interviews, classroom observations and stimulated-recall interviews. Thematic analysis was performed to identify common themes from the participating students’ ideas. Results reveal that participants’ L2 WTC emerges as a result of the complex, dynamic and non-linear interaction between individual, contextual, and linguistic factors. These three factors interdependently exerted either facilitative or inhibitive impacts on an individual student’s WTC in class at any point in time. The current study, therefore, reinforces the need for teachers to be aware of the multiple factors which lead learners to be more or less willing to communicate in L2 classrooms.

A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF COLLABORATIVE WRITING IMPLEMENTATION IN K-12 SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS

In recognizing that writing is a social act, collaborative writing has received increased attention in second language (L2) classrooms. A large body of research literature explores the varied ways of L2 collaborative writing development in tertiary education settings, but relatively little is known about the implementation of collaborative writing in K-12 classrooms. In this study, the authors systematically reviewed a total of 12 peer-reviewed empirical studies on the use of collaborative writing in K-12 L2 classrooms to provide new insights into this particular context. Comprehensive analysis has been conducted, including the research context, writing task, mode of interaction, research focus, and assessment. The findings reveal that the majority of the selected studies have involved K-12 students learning English as a target language with diverse writing tasks. Three different collaborative writing approaches have been implemented in K-12 classrooms of L2, including face-to-face, online, and a blend of both styles. The main research foci of the reviewed literature are writing processes, writing outcomes, and collaborative writing affordances. Diverse assessment methods are utilized to measure L2 writers’ writing process and product. Drawing on the analyses, the researchers discuss the pedagogical implications and research strands that deserve further examination.

Gippius, Gender, and Textual Work in the L2 Classroom

These comments make a case for the value of careful philological work with literary texts in the language classroom. I propose that grammatically sensitive close reading of literature is a valuable way to introduce students to the generative relationship between rules and originality in language use, the way that each utterance draws on the available resources of a language to intervene into a concrete situation. In support of this claim, I offer an example from my own Russian teaching, in which the alternating grammatical gender in Zinaida Gippius' 1905 poem "Ты" ("You") opens up linguistic strategies used by present-day non-binary and gender non-conforming Russian speakers.

Willingness to communicate in the L2 about meaningful photos: Application of the pyramid model of WTC

Willingness to communicate (WTC) reflects an intersection between instructed second language acquisition and learner psychology. WTC results from the coordinated interaction among complex processes that prepare second language (L2) learners to choose to use their L2 for authentic communication. Prior research has revealed considerable complexity in the influences on dynamic changes in WTC from moment-to-moment. The heuristic ‘pyramid model’ of WTC (MacIntyre et al., 1998) proposes interactions among approximately 30 different variables that may influence WTC. The present study uses the pyramid model to interpret data from three focal participants, all English as a second language (ESL) learners and international students in Canada, with varying degrees of experience in an English-speaking context. Using the idiodynamic method, all participants were recorded while describing a self-selected, personally meaningful photo. Second, participants rated their WTC in English using software that played a recording of their speech and collected continuous WTC ratings. Finally, participants were interviewed about their WTC ratings. Triangulating the data revealed how processes on multiple timescales interact during L2 communication about the photos. WTC changes as speakers’ motivations and emotions are influenced by the deep, personal relevance of the topics under discussion. Pedagogical implications for the results of this study and the use of the idiodynamic method in L2 classrooms are discussed.

The Role of Language Teacher Metacognition and Executive Function in Exemplary Classroom Practice

AbstractMetacognition is a topic of increasing interest in the field of instruction and learning, but its relation to actual teaching behaviors is seldom investigated in second language (L2) classroom research. The purpose of this study was to examine whether and how language teacher metacognition and executive function are linked to high‐leverage teaching practice. We recruited foreign and second language teachers (N = 937), including bilingual/ESL teachers, from public schools across the southern United States. We obtained a direct measure of teachers’ executive function and an indirect measure of metacognitive capacity. Using the Tripod (7Cs) framework, we also assessed specific aspects of high‐leverage teaching practice under 3 broad conceptual areas: personal support, curricular support, and academic press. We examined the mediating role of teacher metacognitive capacity between executive function and exemplary classroom practice, and tested an alternative model. Analyses returned stronger support for our hypothesized model over the alternative, indicating that teacher metacognition—teachers’ adaptive capacity to monitor, interpret, evaluate, and intervene on L2 classroom events—constitutes an important mediating condition for building classroom environments that are engaging, demanding, and supportive of learners’ L2 development.

“[It] Changed Everything”: The Effect of Shifting Social Structures on Queer L2 Learners’ Identity Management

ABSTRACT Despite a growing body of knowledge regarding the relevance of queer people and their lives to language education, we still know little about the power of classrooms, institutions, and larger macro structural forces to shape—and be shaped by—the identity experiences of queer L2 learners. This article presents a comparative analysis of the identity dilemmas and decisions of two queer learners as they studied Japanese in their home countries (the United States and Romania) and Japan. The findings show that the participants had learned to view their queer identities as incompatible with the compulsory cisgenders and heterosexuality reproduced in the social setting of the L2 classroom. My analysis underscores the crucial role that institutional policies and practices have on the well-being of queer students. The comparative analysis also highlights the objective/subjective duality of macro social structures and how they come to mean in the lives of learners.

L1 Use in English Courses 'a Facilitating Tool or a Language Barrier' in L2 Teaching/Learning at Graduation Level

The purpose of the current study was to explore either L1 use in L2 courses teaching/learning is a facilitating tool or a language barrier. This research design was qualitative in nature. The outcomes of the present study directed that the teachers and learners of both genders disclosed exceedingly positive views and perceptions regarding the use of L1 in L2 classroom. The majority of the respondents preferred using L1 in certain situations for specific reasons such as while learning about grammar and its usage in the L2 classroom, discussing course policies, attendance, and other administrative information, explaining some difficult concepts, to give directions about exams and in introducing the aim of the lesson, to discuss tests, quizzes, and other assignments appropriately. Similarly, they were highly motivated to use L1 while teaching and comprehending summaries and short questions, letter writing and paraphrasing the text of L2 courses. However, most of the learners and their teachers revealed a lot of mutual understanding on various points and situations.

Vocabulary Barriers Experienced by University Students in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language

The purpose of this research was to analyze the vocabulary barriers experienced by learners of public sector universities and colleges situated in South Punjab. SPSS version 23 was used to check the frequency and percentage of the responses of the respondents. The bulk of the learners indicated that they fail to achieve sufficient vocabulary to satisfy their educational and social needs due to certain factors such as the scope and magnitude of the assignments given to the students meaning the number of words that L2 learners need to learn is extraordinarily large. Similarly, the difference between spoken and written English becomes challenging on the way of learning L2 properly. To overcome all these barriers, the role of English language teachers is vulnerable as he is regarded as the custodian of L2 classroom, especially in EC and OC Circle countries and Pakistan is included in OC Circle countries.

Language Policy vrs Language Reality in the Ghanaian Classroom: A Study of Colleges of Education

This descriptive qualitative study attempted to understand, explore and report the occasions and reasons for which a tutor or a student would use the native language in the second language classroom in a national language policy context, like Ghana, where such practice is disallowed. To use the L1 in the L2 classroom or not has been an ongoing debate in Applied Linguistics and Teaching English as Second/Foreign Language (TESL/TESOL, TEFL), in that, while a group insists on a strict monolingual English-only ESL classroom, another group thinks a reasonable quantity of L1 and appropriate use of same in the ESL classroom could actually facilitate the teaching and learning of English. Data collection instruments were participant observation and semi-structured interviews. Participants were 13 language tutors and 53 second-year language specialism students, all from four Colleges of Education, and selected through purposive sampling. Results revealed that L1 is used as functional strategy in the L2 classroom, and serves various reasons; empathy, classroom management, identity, lack of comprehension, nurturing bilingualism. It is recommended, therefore, that, the national language policy of Ghana which limits the language of classroom instruction to English be made lax enough to allow for some appreciable amount of the L1 to aid ‘understanding’, which is the bedrock of education.

Investigating the utilisation of the Micro-Functions of Bahasa Melayu by English Teachers

The controversy over the use of first language (L1) in the second language (L2) classroom has been discussed extensively by numerous scholars in which they either advocate or reject the utilisation of L1 in the target language (TL) classroom. Although the proponents of the monolingual approach argued that there are many disadvantages of utilising the L1, they have yet to present empirical findings to demonstrate that L1 could ultimately hinder the L2 learning. In most L2 classrooms, teachers and students often share similar experiences of L1 utilisation, including in English language classroom in Malaysia. Therefore, it is common for teachers to feel the inclination to use L1 when the other options have failed to explain something during the lessons. A considerable number of local and international studies have pointed out on the wide range of L1 use by L2 teachers. Thus, this study intended to investigate the specific utilisation of micro-functions of L1 (Bahasa Melayu) by English (L2) teachers. A total of 899 English teachers from Pahang were randomly selected to respond to a survey questionnaire which consists of 43 items that represent a myriad functions of Bahasa Melayu (BM). The findings of the study showed that the majority of the respondents utilised a significant number of micro-functions of BM to teach English particularly to assist them in delivering the content of the lessons while its usage was so significant for classroom management and social and interpersonal reasons. The study proposes a need for proper guidelines on how and when teachers should use L1 in L2 teaching. Keywords: First Language; Second language; Bahasa Melayu; English Teachers

A Syntactic Approach to Teaching English as a Second Language at the Undergraduate Level

The aim of this paper is to present a model of teaching English as a second language (L2) at the undergraduate level based on some theoretical insights of generative syntax. Broadly, it is an attempt to reconcile some insights about language expounded in generative syntactic theories overtime with second language teaching, hence, at the application level. These two disciplines, i.e., generative syntax and language teaching have developed as two distinctive domains at both theoretical and empirical levels, and hardly any organized attempt has been made to see the pedagogical advantages that the latter can derive from the former. The different language teaching methodologies and approaches from Grammar Translation to Audio Lingual method, Audio Visual method, Communicative Approach, and to more recent ones have been attempted at both Sri Lankan schools and the universities. Nevertheless, it can be seen that the L2 teachers are practicing more of an eclectic method in the L2 classroom in both places. In terms of syllabus, mode of presentation, and assessment forms, a discrete point pedagogical organization of language items can be seen. In contrast, when language teachers are shown the nature of native speaker competence as reflected in his/her performance, i.e., his/her utterances, in a rather modular architecture of grammar, better results can be expected from both the language teacher and the learner. Hence, this paper examines teaching of lexical categories, verb complementation, and tense and aspect in terms of distributional criteria, argument structure, thematic roles, and tense as a linguistic representation of time.

The Effect of Dialogic Mediation on the Development of an Experienced Teacher and Learners' Conceptual Development and Actions in the L2 Classroom

The study investigated the effect of mediation on the development of an experienced teacher using the Vygotskian sociocultural view of learning. The effects of the transformation of the teacher on the development of the learners' emotions and practices were investigated as well. To reach these ends, an experienced teacher with 15 years of experience teaching general English at one of the universities in Iran was selected. To observe the teacher's practices, she was first observed in the first five sessions. To analyze her feelings and attitudes towards teaching before the mediation, she was also asked to narrate orally what she had done and felt during her practices. As some of her practices were based on the traditional techniques like over-reliance on translation and deductive teaching of grammar, the mediator offered the mediations and hints in a face-to-face interaction after the fifth to the twentieth session to help the teacher reshape and recontextualize her practices. Analysis of the findings showed that the teacher could internalize some of the mediations like increasing the students' participation in the class activities. The study concludes with some pedagogical implications like paying attention to the emotions of teachers and learners in different teaching contexts.