Bleached Kraft Pulp Research Articles

High-Yield Cellulose Nanocrystals from Bleached Eucalyptus Fibers via Maleic Acid Hydrothermal Treatment and High-Pressure Homogenization.

This study reports the preparation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) from commercial bleached eucalyptus Kraft pulp (BEKP) using a hydrothermal treatment in the presence of maleic acid (MA), followed by high-pressure homogenization. Compared with conventional hydrolysis methods, this approach offers significant advantages, including lower acid concentration, higher yield, and milder processing conditions. CNCs were produced with a high yield (70-85 wt %) by high-pressure homogenization of hydrothermally treated BEKP fibers with 10-20 wt % maleic acid at 150 °C, giving rise to a stable translucent gel of CNCs with a rod-like morphology (200-400 nm length and 10-40 nm width). The reinforcing potential of the CNCs was also assessed by preparing nanocomposite films with CNC contents of up to 15 wt %, and the results were compared to commercial CNCs from CelluForce. Additionally, their biodegradability in aquatic media was assessed using biological oxygen demand, with results compared to those of neat cellulose fibers. The MA-assisted hydrothermal process is an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional CNC production methods, offering higher yields and enhanced thermal stability while preserving a strong reinforcing property.

Evaluation of the potential use of powdered activated carbon in the treatment of effluents from bleached kraft pulp mills

Abstract Pulp mill effluents contain organic compounds derived from wood processing that resist conventional biological treatment. Studies suggest that powdered activated carbon (PAC) can enhance the quality of these effluents. Two types of PAC, chemically activated (PAC1) and physically activated (PAC2), were characterized and applied in dosages of 1, 2, and 3 g/L to reduce chemical oxigen demand (COD) and color in kraft pulp mill effluent. In Phase 1, physicochemical tests identified the optimal PAC type, dosage, and maximum cycles for effective COD and color reduction. In Phase 2, biological aerobic sequencing batch reactors (SBR) were tested with the optimal PAC from Phase 1. Results indicated PAC1 could be reused for COD reduction for up to 8 cycles and PAC2 for up to 6 cycles. For color reduction, PAC1 was effective for up to 4 cycles, while PAC2 failed to reduce color. The type of activation used by PAC1 proved to be more effective in reducing both COD and color than PAC2. Adding PAC1 (3 g/L) to the SBR increased COD removal from 70.5 % to 75.5 % and color removal from 26.6 % to 43.8 %, also improving sludge settling.

Biocomposites Based on Mould Biomass and Waste Fibres for the Production of Agrotextiles: Technology Development, Material Characterization, and Agricultural Application.

This study explores the potential use of mould biomass and waste fibres for the production of agrotextiles. First, 20 mould strains were screened for efficient mycelium growth, with optimized conditions of temperature, sources of carbon and nitrogen in the medium, and type of culture (submerged or surface). A method was developed for creating a biocomposite based on the mould mycelium, reinforced with commercial bleached softwood kraft (BSK) pulp and fibre additives (cotton, hemp). The best properties, including mechanical, water permeability, and air permeability, were shown by the biocomposites containing 10-20% Cladosporium cladosporioides mycelium grown in surface or submerged cultures, milled with BSK pulp, cotton, and hemp (10-20%). The mould mycelium was refined with cellulosic fibrous material, formed, pressed, and dried, resulting in a biomaterial with good mechanical parameters, low water permeability, and high air permeability. The biocomposite was fully biodegradable in soil after 10 days in field conditions. The use of the biocomposite as a crop cover shortened the germination time and increased the percentage of germinated onion, but had no effect on parsley seeds. This study shows the potential of using mould mycelium for the production of biomaterial with good properties for applications in horticulture.

Evaluation of cellulase effect on the refining process of softwood bleached kraft pulp

Evaluation of cellulase effect on the refining process of softwood bleached kraft pulp

Enzymatic conversion of wood materials from the pulp and paper industry

The reactivity during enzymatic hydrolysis of 8 industrially produced samples of pulps and semi-chemical pulps by enzyme preparations of glycosyl hydrolases B151 and F10 produced by a strain of ascomycete fungus Penicillium verruculosum has been determined. It is shown for the first time that among fibrous pulps available on the market of pulp and paper industry in Russia, the highest level of yield of glucose from the initial wood during biocatalysis using cellulases and hemicellulases is characteristic of semi-chemical pulps obtained after cooking of hardwood with green liquor. A high degree of enzymatic conversion of softwood bleached kraft pulp has been established, which in combination with the possibility of obtaining modified polysaccharide materials from non-hydrolysable residue makes this cellulosic substrate the most promising for the development of biological processes at pulp and paper industries. It is shown that drying of pulp negatively affects the efficiency of cellulose hydrolysis, while mechanical milling improves the performance of the enzymatic saccharification process.

Preparation of carboxylic cellulose nanofibrils via FeCl3-catalyzed maleic acid hydrolysis and application for self-supporting electrode

The cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs)/MXene composite film has been widely studied in the field of energy storage, sensing, etc. The carboxyl group in CNFs can form hydrogen bond interaction with −F, −O and –OH in MXene to preventing the self-stacking of MXene. In addition, for energy storage, carboxyl groups also promote ion transport in the electrolyte, improving electrochemical performance. Therefore, the green preparation for carboxylic CNFs is important. Herein, CNFs with high carboxyl content were prepared by introducing ferric chloride (FeCl3) catalyst to promote the hydrolysis efficiency of bleached softwood kraft pulp (BSKP) by maleic acid (MA). It was found that the optimized CNFs demonstrated a narrow diameter distribution, high yield (90 %), high carboxyl content (0.5 mmol/g), and good thermal stability (Tmax was about 343 °C). In addition, the obtained CNFs were further combined with MXene by filtration to obtain a composite film, and the composite film was used for self-supporting electrodes. XRD showed increased layer spacing of MXene in composite film, indicating that CNFs effectively inhibited MXene self-stacking. CNFs/MXene film as the self-supporting electrode showed good electrochemical performance (areal capacitance of 2051.4 mF cm−2 at 2 mA cm−2) in three-electrode system.

Assessing cytotoxicity and biocompatibility of cellulose nanofibrils on alveolar macrophages

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) are a promising new material derived from biomass, known for their lightweight, high strength, and low thermal expansion properties. However, concerns have been raised about their potential health impact due to their fibrous and ultrafine nature. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different types of CNFs on rat alveolar macrophages (NR8383). The CNFs tested included TEMPO-oxidized CNFs (CNF1), phosphorylated CNFs (CNF2), mechanically fibrillated CNFs from softwood bleached kraft pulp (CNF3), CNFs derived from citrus peels (CNF4), and two size fractions (coarse and ultrafine) of softwood bleached kraft pulp obtained by aqueous counter collision processing (CNF5 and CNF6). The findings showed no significant production of reactive oxygen species in any of the CNF exposure groups. However, exposure to CNF1, CNF2, and CNF3 led to increased mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity, elevated pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and upregulation of inflammation-related genes. These effects were less pronounced in the CNF4, CNF5, and CNF6 groups. Cellular uptake of CNFs was observed across all groups, and the response to CNF exposure differed from the response to microcrystalline cellulose, which was used as a reference material. No clear correlation was found between the observed effects and the presence of biological contaminants, such as bacteria and endotoxins, in the CNF dispersions. These findings suggest that CNFs may either activate macrophages or demonstrate biocompatibility rather than cytotoxicity. The impact and biocompatibility of CNFs on alveolar macrophages appear to be influenced by various factors, including the source of the CNF raw material, the manufacturing process, physicochemical properties, and biological characteristics of the CNF dispersion. This study provides valuable insights into the potential inhalation effects of CNFs.Graphic abstract

A deep eutectic solvent with bifunctional acid sites treatment to upgrade a bamboo kraft pulp into a cellulose-acetate grade dissolving pulp

Valorization of non-wood pulp, such as bamboo bleached kraft pulp into high-purity cellulose acetate (CA)-grade dissolving pulp is crucial but challenging in China. Herein, a series of metal salt-based deep eutectic solvents (MSDESs) involving various ZnCl2-urea (U), ZnCl2-glycerol (G), and ZnCl2-lactic acid (LA) are comparatively investigated for this purpose. Thanks to the bifunctional acid sites of Lewis acid ZnCl2 and Brønsted acid LA, the ZnCl2-LA MSDES has the highest acidity (2.62) and interaction affinity to bamboo fibers, leading to the highest efficiency in simultaneous pulp purification and activation. As a result, the resultant upgraded pulp from ZnCl2-LA (DES3-F) features remarkable improvements in purity (from 80.8 % to 93.1 %), intrinsic viscosity (from 897 to 419 mg/L), and reactivity (from 18.1 % to 80.8 %). Moreover, the modified acetate product has a high degree of substitution of 2.84 and a yield of 75.5 %. In short, such a proposed MSDES treatment can offer a promising and alternative approach for the manufacture of high-quality dissolving pulp and its derivatives.

Life cycle assessment of Brazilian bleached eucalyptus kraft pulp: Integrating bleaching processes and biogenic carbon impacts

Bleached eucalyptus kraft (BEK) pulp dominates global pulp production, yet the environmental impacts of its bleaching sequences in Brazil are not fully explored. Addressing this gap, we conducted a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of three bleaching sequences: conventional elemental chlorine-free (ECF), ECF with oxygen delignification, and ECF with oxygen delignification plus acid washing. We estimated the average global warming potential (GWP) for BEK delivered to the U.S. and examined how forest carbon cycle (FCC) elements, specifically biogenic GWP (GWPbio) and potential soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration, influence GWP outcomes. Results show that the ECF sequence with oxygen delignification and acid washing reduces GWP by 11% and outperforms conventional ECF in 10 out of 11 environmental impact categories. The average GWP for Brazilian BEK delivered to the U.S. is 576 kg CO₂-eq/ton. Sensitivity analyses demonstrate that adding GWPbio increases GWP by 18%, whereas accounting for potential SOC sequestration reduces it by 39%. These findings highlight the necessity of optimizing bleaching processes and developing a standardized BEK LCA model for comparing the environmental impact of different fibers. This work sets a precedent for integrating FCC elements into LCAs and underscores the potential of SOC sequestration in mitigating climate change impacts.

Результаты исследования взаимосвязи вязкости и механической прочности беленой лиственной сульфатной целлюлозы

An assessment has been made of the relationship between viscosity and mechanical strength of industrial samples of bleached hardwood kraft pulp. To produce this type of semi-finished product, birch and aspen wood has been used, which has been harvested in the Northwestern region of the Russian Federation. The viscosity of a solution of high-molecular polymers provides an idea of the average length of the fibers and, accordingly, their degree of destruction. In turn, the mechanical properties of the fibrous semi-finished product and the strength of the products made from it largely depend on the length of the fiber. Since it takes no more than 2 hours to determine the viscosity of a solution of high-molecular polymers, and 8–10 hours to obtain standard mechanical strength characteristics, viscosity analysis can be considered an express method that provides information on the mechanical strength of a semi-finished product. In this work, the ISO 5351:2010 international standard in cupriethylenediamine solution has been used to analyze the viscosity of the semi-finished product. High values of mechanical strength characteristics have been detected for industrial samples of bleached hardwood kraft pulp with a viscosity of more than 800 ml/g. For pulp samples, a correlation has been established only between the number of double folds and viscosity. Further research has been carried out on samples of bleached hardwood kraft pulp with different degrees of fiber destruction, which have been produced with varying the parameters of sodium hypochlorite treatment. The results have made it possible to establish a range of critical viscosity values for bleached hardwood kraft pulp, which has amounted to 600...700 ml/g, and a polynomial relationship between tear resistance, breaking length, a number of double folds and viscosity with a high confidence coefficient of data approximation of no less than 0.89. It has been shown that viscosity can become an analytical tool in the express diagnostics of the mechanical strength of a fibrous semi-finished product at the intermediate stages of production of bleached hardwood kraft pulp and in quality control of the ready-made semi-finished product.

Pickering emulsions stabilized by cellulose nanofibers with tunable surface properties for thermal energy storage

Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have been widely used as a renewable emulsifier to stabilize two immiscible liquids due to their intrinsic amphiphilicity and excellent emulsifying ability. However, it remains challenging to fully understand the effects of carboxylate group content and surface charge density on the emulsifying ability of CNFs and the stability of Pickering emulsion. Herein, carboxymethylated CNFs were extracted from bleached kraft pulp using etherification reaction and high-pressure homogenization, allowing for easy surface charge density and size adjustment by changing sodium chloroacetate content and homogenization cycles. The optimizing CNFs possessed a high Zeta potential (−71.2 mV) and a suitable carboxylate group content (1.81 mmol/g), which enabled CNFs to irreversibly adsorb at the hydrophobic paraffin wax (PW) droplet surface and form interfacial steric barriers, providing large electrostatic repulsion between the PW droplets against coalescence. Thus, the CNF-stabilized PW emulsions could be stored for more than 6 months. Moreover, the phase change enthalpy of the freeze-dried emulsion is as high as 193.7 J/g, which provides the emulsion to reversibly store and release heat. This work provides a comprehensive insight into the interfacial stability mechanism of CNFs as stabilizers and facilitates the potential application in thermal energy storage.

Compression refining: the future of refining? Application to Nordic bleached softwood kraft pulp

Compression refining: the future of refining? Application to Nordic bleached softwood kraft pulp

Mechano-chemical, high-consistency activation of kraft pulp in deep eutectic solvent of choline chloride and urea

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) offer an appealing green medium for the activation of cellulose fibres to promote their swelling, reactivity, hydrolysis, disintegration, and solubility for further processing. Typically, DES treatments are carried out below 5 wt% consistency even though a higher solids content could enhance the fibre activation and reduce the solvent consumption. In this work, a high-consistency (HC) mechano-chemical activation of bleached softwood kraft pulp was elucidated using a simultaneous fibre treatment with DES of choline chloride-urea and a sigma-type kneader or a twin-screw extruder at a solids content of 15–35 wt% and 30 wt%, respectively. Both HC treatments efficiently triggered fibre swelling, which was indicated by an increase in the fibre width, and loosened the cell wall structure which was indicated by an increase in the mesopore volume. Mechano-chemical HC processing generated fibre fines and external fibrillation, while the molecular-level structural alteration or changes in chemical composition were minor; the intrinsic viscosity and the crystallinity of the pulp remained at their initial level and only a small amount of xylan was dissolved. Overall, HC treatment in a twin-screw extruder caused notably more severe morphological changes in the fibres than batch treatment in a sigma-type kneader. Thus, the mechano-chemical HC treatment with DES provides an industrially relevant technology for cellulose modification and opens possibilities to enhance heterogeneous cellulose modification processes in which the highly available surface area of pulp is a key parameter.

Melt compounding of spray-dried cellulose nanofibrils/polypropylene and their application in 3D printing

Micro- and nano-scale cellulosic fillers exhibit excellent dispersion and distribution within a thermoplastic matrix during the process of melt compounding or injection molding. In this study, spray-dried cellulose nanofiber (SDCNF) powders were manufactured using a pilot-scale rotating disk atomizer spray dryer. Bleached Kraft pulp (BKP), unbleached Kraft pulp (UKP), and old corrugated cardboard pulp (OCC) fibrillated at a fines level of 90% were used as feedstock materials for spray-drying. BKP-, UKP-, and OCC- SDCNFs were compounded with polypropylene using a twin screw co-rotating extruder. Maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP) was used as a coupling agent in the composite formulations. The tensile, flexural, and impact properties of SDCNF-filled PP composites increased at 10 wt% SDCNF loading. The presence of SDCNFs in the PP matrix resulted in faster crystallization and a 12% reduction in the degree of crystallinity of the neat PP. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of neat PP was reduced by up to 31% attributable to the presence of the SDCNFs. Application of the SDCNF-reinforced PP composites in 3D printing reduced the shrinkage rate of the printed neat PP by 39%, and the printability of the PP was significantly improved with the addition of the SDCNFs.

Energy absorption and resilience in quasi-static loading of foam-formed cellulose fibre materials

To avoid microplastic pollution, there is an urgent need to replace fossil-based cushioning materials in packaging with easily recyclable alternatives. Here, we investigated the potential of lightweight cellulose fibre materials as a solution for mechanical protection. The quasi-static compression was studied among a vast set of 129 different foam-formed trial points with material density ranging from 21 kg/m3 to 123 kg/m3. The trial points included two different fibre types, bleached softwood kraft pulp (BSKP) and bleached chemithermomechanical pulp (CTMP), with varied refining level, pulp consistency, foaming conditions, surfactant type, strength additives, and final material density and thickness. Besides a correlation analysis of factors affecting compression stress and resilience, the results were reflected against a new theoretical prediction of energy absorption for an ideal low-density random fibre network. The theory predicts the initially-high cushion factor to rapidly drop down to the level of 4‒5 at 40‒80% compression. A similar behaviour was seen among the actual samples, despite their various non-ideal features. At 50% compression, the average cushion factor across the whole data set was 4.84 ± 0.10, being close to the theoretical prediction of 4.61 for the ideal case. The smallest cushion factor of 3.6 was found for a CTMP sample. The recovery from compression varied slightly among the samples and appeared highest for the material density of 60‒100 kg/m3, following the predicted proportion of non-buckled fibre segments. According to the results, cellulose fibre-based cushions have a soft initial response, which is preferable for fragile items.Graphical abstract

Added-Value of Cotton Textile Waste for Nonwoven Applications

Due to the continuous optimization of cutting plans, the cotton scrap size resulting from the cutting of components for clothing production (post-industrial residues) is often considered insufficient to obtain fibres with the proper length to produce a new yarn through mechanical recycling processes; so it is important to search for other applications for these wastes. In this context, small pieces of cotton were submitted to a shredding process to obtain recycled fibres. Cotton small pieces and recycled fibres were then submitted to a refining process to achieve refined fibres. Using these materials alone and in blends with refined and unrefined bleached eucalyptus kraft pulp (BEKP), wet-laid nonwovens were developed and characterized. An analysis of the results revealed that the replacement of unrefined BEKP by 70% cotton waste fibres in wet-laid nonwovens, reducing the use of virgin raw material, enhances the structures’ mechanical properties by 80% and 14%, for small pieces or recycled fibres, respectively. Additionally, refining small pieces of cotton seems to be more promising than refining recycled fibres, because less steps are required to obtain wet-laid nonwovens with better mechanical properties. These results highlight the potential of this approach to be explored further for different products and end applications.

TEMPO/CaBr2/Ca(OCl)2 oxidation of hardwood bleached kraft pulp in water at pH 10 with aqueous Ca(OH)2 solution

The conventional TEMPO/NaBr/NaOCl system for oxidation of cellulose to prepare nanocellulose materials has some shortcomings in terms of controlling side reactions and clogging in washing/filtration process. A new TEMPO/CaBr2/Ca(OCl)2 system was then developed to oxidize a hardwood bleached kraft pulp (HBKP) in water at pH 10 (TEMPO = 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical). An aqueous Ca(OH)2 solution was used to continuously control the reaction mixture at pH 10. After oxidation, the reaction mixture containing the oxidized products and chemicals was directly filtered on a 40-μm-mesh nylon filter and the water-insoluble oxidized products on the filter were washed with water without any clogging. The carboxy content increased to 1.5 mmol/g and the mass recovery ratio decreased to 87.7% as the amount of Ca(OCl)2 was increased to 10.0 mmol/g-HBKP. The oxidized products contained calcium ions but almost no chloride ions, indicating that they comprised almost pure –(COO)2Ca groups. The ready filtration and washing of the oxidized products was probably owing to the low degree of dissociation of the –(COO)2Ca groups in water. The X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and solid-state carbon 13 nuclear magnetic resonance (13C-NMR) analyses revealed that the crystallinities and crystal widths of the original cellulose I structure were mostly retained in the oxidized products. However, size-exclusion chromatography and viscosity analyses revealed that substantial depolymerization occurred on the cellulose and oxidized cellulose molecules in the products, as in TEMPO/NaBr/NaOCl-oxidized products.Graphical

Understanding the potential of bamboo fibers in the USA: A comprehensive techno‐economic comparison of bamboo fiber production through mechanical and chemical processes

AbstractThe growing interest in bamboo fibers for pulp, paper, and board production in the USA necessitates a comprehensive financial viability assessment. This study conducts a detailed technoeconomic analysis (TEA) of bamboo fiber production, primarily for the consumer hygiene tissue market although it is also applicable to other industrial uses. The economic viability of two pulping methods – alkaline peroxide mechanical pulping (APMP) and ammonium bisulfite chemical pulping (ABS) – was explored within three different pulp mill settings to supply pulp to two nonintegrated tissue and towel mills in South Carolina, USA. The target was to produce wet lap bamboo bleached pulp at 50% consistency and 70% ISO brightness. Despite higher initial capital invesment and operating costs, ABS achieved a lower minimum required selling price – USD 544 to 686 per bone dry metric ton (BDt = 1000 BDkg) – in comparison with USD 766 to 899 BDt−1 for APMP. This price advantage is partly due to an additional revenue stream (lignosulfonate byproduct), which not only boosts revenue but also circumvents the need for expensive chemical recovery systems. When compared with traditional kraft pulping, both methods require significantly lower capital investments, with minimum required selling prices (estimated to achieve 16% IRR) below current market rates for extensively used bleached kraft pulps in the USA tissue industry. The economic benefits derive from several factors: the low cost of bamboo as raw material, reduced capital needs for new pulping technologies, lower transportation costs from the pulp mill to tissue and towel manufacturing facilities, and the high market price of bleached kraft pulp.

Foam-laid extensible paper for improved extensibility and press-forming performance

This study was motivated by the recent raising interest for the sustainable plastic-free dry 3D formable materials. 3D forming processes are capable to produce large unit quantities, but the process conditions for packaging applications have been typically very demanding for cellulose-based materials. This study covers some of the key factors affecting the extensibility of cellulose fibre-based materials and presents a laboratory-scale development study of a press-formable material concept. The investigation focused on comparisons of two refining concepts for bleached softwood kraft (BSK) pulp and two sheet forming concepts, namely water-laid and foam-laid forming. Additionally, influence of thermoplastic additives on the extensibility and 3D forming performance were investigated. In-plane compaction was applied with Expanda® laboratory device. Performance of the materials was evaluated by tensile tests and depth of the 3D formed shapes. In this study, in-plane compaction at first in cross-machine direction (CD) and then in machine direction (MD) led to over 30% elongation with BSK-based laboratory sheets containing latex as a binder and foaming agent. In addition to high elongation, optimal strength was needed for the best press-forming performances. In-plane compaction was the most significant factor regarding the elongation, but it also decreased the strength of the materials. Similar press-forming performance was found with two materials with either highly anisotropic or more isotropic elongation. The elongation anisotropy was created by one-way and two-way in-plane compactions. The results indicate that a reasonable performance for BSK-based materials for 3D forming applications can be reached using the presented concept.

Evaluating the reinforcing potential of enzymatic cellulose nanocrystals in polypropylene nanocomposite

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) produced through enzymatic hydrolysis exhibit physicochemical properties that make them attractive as eco-friendly reinforcing agents in polymer composites. However, the extent of their efficacy within a polymeric matrix is yet to be fully established. This study investigated the reinforcing capabilities of enzymatic CNC (approximately 3 nm in diameter) isolated from bleached eucalyptus Kraft pulp (BEKP), focusing on its application in polypropylene (PP) nanocomposites produced by injection molding. The study compared the performance of this enzymatic CNC (1–5 % wt) with PP composites reinforced with micro-sized cellulose fibers (BEKP at 10–30 % wt, approximately 13 μm) and additionally with commercial CNC produced by sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Despite enzymatic CNC experiencing agglomeration during spray-drying, leading to an average diameter increase to 3 μm, it still significantly increased the crystallization and glass transition temperature of the PP matrix. However, this agglomeration likely hindered the improvement of the mechanical properties within the nanocomposites. The results also showed that enzymatic CNC provided higher thermal stability at lower reinforcement levels compared to BEKP, but this came with a reduction in stiffness, posing a significant consideration in composite design. The addition of a coupling agent greatly enhanced the dispersion of reinforcements and the interfacial adhesion within the matrix, contributing to the enhanced performance of the composite properties. Additionally, enzymatic CNC demonstrated potential for superior reinforcement efficacy compared to commercially available CNC produced by sulfuric acid hydrolysis. In conclusion, enzymatic CNC exhibited a promising role as nano-reinforcement for thermoplastic polymer nanocomposites, exhibiting higher thermal properties at lower reinforcing loads than traditional micro-sized fiber reinforcements. The absence of sulfur, coupled with its higher thermal stability and sustainable potential, positions enzymatic CNC as a particularly favorable choice for applications involving direct contact with food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and biomedical materials.