Water Deer Research Articles

The Glycosylation Pattern of Secretory Granules in Binucleate Trophoblast Cells is Highly Conserved in Ruminants

The binucleate trophoblast cells (BNCs) in the ruminant placenta are a unique feature of this taxon. These cells produce several secretory proteins and transfer these across the fetomaternal barrier into the dam. We used lectin histochemistry with a panel of 24 lectins to characterise the glycosylation pattern of BNC secretory granules in a variety of ruminants. Seven species out of three ruminant families were thus investigated: greater malayan chevrotain (Tragulidae); fallow deer, red deer, chinese water deer (Cervidae); and domestic goat, springbok, impala (Bovidae).BNC granules in all species studied strongly expressed tri-/tetraantennary complex N-glycans and bisecting N-acetylglucosamine [GlcNAc] as shown by binding of leuco- and erythroagglutins of Phaseolus vulgaris respectively. The presence of terminal N-acetylgalactosamine [GalNAc]) in BNC granules is shown by intense staining with lectins from Dolichos biflorus, Vicia villosa and Wisteria floribunda. Terminal galactose or GalNAc was also present, bound by Glycine max agglutinin. Treatment of slides with neuraminidase strongly intensified staining of Erythrina cristagalli lectin (ECA) to terminal lactosamine in all species studied; this was otherwise absent except in goat. Sambucus nigra-1 lectin bound to BNC granules in all species except in Impala, indicating the presence of abundant alpha2,6 linked sialic acid.These results indicate that these unusual highly branched glycans, with bisecting GlcNAc and terminal GalNAc are a general feature of BNC granules in Ruminants, including the most basal Tragulid branch. It therefore appears that the specific glycosylation pattern of BNC granules evolved early in ruminant phylogenesis, together with the appearance of BNC. The conserved glycan structure in BNC secretory granules indicates that this pattern of glycosylation is likely to be of considerable functional importance for the secretory glycoproteins of ruminant BNC.

Molecular Detection of Theileria sp. in Wild Chinese Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus)

Two cases of Theileria sp. infection in wild Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus) were diagnosed by microscopic examination of thin blood smears and by molecular typing. Two wild Chinese water deer were referred to the Veterinary Medical Center of Chungbuk National University in South Korea, presumably the result of traffic accidents. Thin blood smears, which were stained with Giemsa, revealed intraerythrocytic parasites; however, the deer had no remarkable findings on physical examination. Polymerase chain reaction and direct sequencing indicated that the parasite was nearly identical to the unidentified Theileria sp. previously found in China. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the Theileria sp. identified in these cases are closest to the group of unidentified Theileria spp. previously found in China and Japan.

Two Sympatric Phylogroups of the Chinese Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis) Identified by Mitochondrial DNA Control Region and Cytochrome b Gene Analyses

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region (927 bp) and cytochrome b gene (1,140 bp) sequences of the Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis) from China and Korea were obtained to examine the taxonomic status of two subspecies, H. i. inermis from China and H. i. argyropus from Korea. Two sympatric mtDNA clades (a major clade from China and Korea and a minor clade from Korea) with an average genetic distance of 2.1% in the control region and 1.3% in the cytochrome b gene were detected. These findings are not consistent with the current classification by pelage color. We propose a reconsideration of the validity of the subspecies designation by the statistical comparison of morphological characters including body color. The major common mtDNA phylogroup in the two allopatric subspecies could be explained by the contiguous distribution of the Chinese water deer from east China to Korea until recent years. The restriction in the range and number of the Chinese subspecies after the last glacier might have caused the disappearance of the minor phylogroup in China. The taxonomic status of the two groups in Korea should be clarified using nuclear DNA marker analyses as well as morphological characters including pelage color.

High prevalence of Theileria sp. in wild Chinese Water Deer ( Hydropotes inermis argyropus) in South Korea

Wild Chinese Water Deer exist in large numbers in Northeast Asia, including South Korea. The deer population is so widespread that they are common even in urban areas, resulting in increased contact with humans and domestic animals. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of Theileria sp. infection in wild Chinese Water Deer in South Korea. Using biomolecular techniques, blood samples taken from 18 wild Chinese Water Deer were examined. Thirteen of the 18 samples (72%) tested positive for infection. In 11 of the deer, a Theileria sp. was detected that is nearly identical to the highly pathogenic Theileria sp. reported in China. Theileria ovis and Theileria capreoli were also detected individually in two deer. These results indicate that there may be a high prevalence of Theileria sp. infection in wild Chinese Water Deer, and that the deer may act as a reservoir for the Theileria sp. infection of domestic animals.

Maternal investment and reproductive success in Chinese water deer

Abstract Among cervids, maternal investment, estimated as the amount of resources and care allocated to the offspring, was expected to be related to species body size. Therefore, maternal investment in a herd of captive Chinese water deer Hydropotes inermis, a relatively small species of cervid, was investigated over 3 years. Except during the lactation period, reproductive females spent about 2-fold more time resting than feeding. During lactation, the amount of time spent feeding increased highly (25.3 min/h during lactation vs 17.3 min/h during the gestation period). Females spent less than 30% of time in communal behaviours with offspring. They did not reject alien fawns during this care period. Frequency and duration of suckling events decreased exponentially from the second week onwards. More than 10% of suckling bouts were non-filial. Prenatal investment leads to a mean litter mass (about 12% of maternal mass) higher than in most cervid species. Postnatal investment in fawns represents a daily mass gain of ca. 85 g/d during the first 2 weeks, without any sexual difference. Female production, timing and synchrony of births and survival of fawns characterized reproductive success. Seventy percent of mature females gave birth, with a mean of 1.9 offspring per female. The sex ratio was even. Births were synchronous, 80% of births occurring in 25 days. In this herd, 0.74 fawn per female was successfully weaned and 0.56 fawn per female survived through their first year. Based on these results we conclude that reproductive strategy of Chinese water deer was efficient and characterized by mother-offspring relationships typical of hiders and high levels of pre- and postnatal investments. This strategy seems typical of small species of cervids without marked sexual dimorphism.

Species Identification and Sex Determination of Korean Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus) by Duplex PCR

Han, S-H., Lee, S-S., Cho, I-C., Oh, M-Y. and Oh, H-S. 2009. Species identification and sex determination of Korean water deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus) by duplex PCR. J. Appl. Anim. Res., 35: 61–66. This study was focused on species identification and sex determination of Korean water deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus) by duplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using two primer sets of sex determining region Y (SRY) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochrome B (CYTB) genes. The CYTB sequences showed 99.5% similarities in identity with Chinese water deer. The length of water deer SRY gene was 687-bp for 228-amino acids which is 3-bp shorter than those reported from other cervids. Males had two bands: a common CYTB and additional SRY. This study further suggested that duplex PCR test could be a rapid and precise method for sex determination using SRY gene and for species identification as well as for internal positive control in PCR reaction utilizing mitochondrial CYTB gene.

국망산 일대의 포유류 분포 현황

This study was conducted from 20 to 24 July 2007 in Mt. Kookmang. The total species of mammals observed in this area were 5 Order, 10 Family and 17 species. The observed species of all survey periods were Mogera wogura, Crocidura suaveolens, Lepus sinensis coreanus, Sciurus vulgaris, Tamias sibiricus, Rattus norvegicus, R. rattus, Mus musculus, Apodemus agrarius, A. pennisulae, Micromys munutus, Nyctereutes procyoniodes, Canis familiaris, Felis catus, Mustela sibirica, Hydropotes inermis and Sus scrofa.

Carpal bones and Tarsal bones in Korean Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus, Heude 1884)

Hydropotes inermis argyropus, Chinese water deer living in Korea, belongs to Order of Artiodactyla and Family of Cervidae. However, it was regarded as a primitive deer in its large laniary canine teeth and the absence of antlers. Carpal bone and tarsal bone are different in their number among animals even in Cervidae caused by absent or fusion between them. So, the shape and number of carpal bones and tarsal bones were used for the morphological feature in determining Cervidae affinities. We investigated the carpal bone and tarsal bones in skeletons in 11 H. inermis arygyropus. Their body weights were above 10 kg. 10 H. inermis arygyropus had 7 carpal bones that were consisted of radial carpal, intermediate carpal, ulnar carpal, and accessory carpal bone in proximal row, firs carpal bone, fused second and third carpal bones, and fourth carpal bone in distal row. This arrangement and articulation with antebrachium, metacarpal and each other was similar with other telemetacarpal type deer. 5 tarsal bones were shown in 10 animals. Calcaneus and talus consist of proximal row, the first tarsal, fused second and third tarsal bones, and fused centroquartal bone in distal row. The arrangement and number of tarsal bone are similar with other Cervidae except Pudu, Muntiacus, and Elaphodus. There is no sesamoid bone which was observed occasionally in small ruminants. One female had one more carpal bone and tarsal bone that might be considered as the fifth carpal bone and the fifth tarsal bone with regarding the location and references. These bones were so tiny with size of 2.0×1.5×1.0mm.These results suggest that H. inermis arygyropus could be a good deer to study on the limb skeleton in phylogenetic research.This study was supported by Korea Research Foundation

Branching Pattern of Aortic Arch in the Korean Water Deer

This study examined the branching pattern of the aortic arch and its major branches in Korean water deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus, Heude, 1884). Silicone casts were taken from the vessels of 23 carcasses (male 14, female 9) with body weights ranging from 1.3-16.0 kg through a retrograde injection into the abdominal aorta. The findings were compared with those from other domestic ruminants. Only the brachiocephalic trunk (Bct) branched from the aortic arch in all carcasses. In 19 of the 23 cases, the Bct branched into the left subclavian artery (LSb), the left common carotid artery (LCc), and then trifurcated into the right common carotid artery (RCc), right costocervical trunk (RCct) and right subclavian artery (RSb). The subclavian artery (Sb) branched into the costocervical trunk (in left), internal thoracic artery (It), and superficial cervical artery (Sc) in that order, and continued as the axillary artery. Instead of separated carotid arteries, the bicarotid trunk from the Bct was observed in only three males and one female. Two of these males had different branching orders of the It and Sc from the Sb in one or both sides. The other male had a RCct from the RSb. The left costocervical trunk (LCct) arose from the LSb in all cases, and branched into the highest intercostal artery, the dorsal scapular artery, and the deep cervical arteries in that order, and continued as the vertebral artery. In 22 cases, the RCct branched directly from the Bct at the same point in which the RCc (or bicarotid trunk) and RSb separated. The artery branching pattern from the RCct was similar to that of the LCct. These results suggest that the Korean water deer has a Bct with different branching patterns from those of domestic ruminants.

Population characteristics of a semi-free-ranging polytocous cervid, Hydropotes inermis

Population characteristics of the polytocous Chinese water deer were studied and compared with those of other cervids and small ruminants. Numerous individuals living semi-freely on a large area were followed during 3 consecutive years. Animals were ear-tagged; matings, births and deaths were recorded. Although this captive population lived at high density, body masses were comparable to those of wild individuals, as were body growth, age at sexual maturity, periods of mating and birth, percentages of females giving birth, and death rates at any age. In contrast, litter size and proportion of young in the population were lower. On the whole, water deer differ from most other cervids by several characters corresponding to a high-population dynamic: short gestation, large litter size, reduced suckling phase, rapid body growth, early tooth replacement and sexual maturity, high mortality rate. However, in fact, water deer populations increase less in the wild than those of other species.

Influence of Forest Fragmentation on the Winter Abundance of Mammals in Mt. Chirisan National Park, South Korea

Abstract: We examined the influence of both local habitat and landscape variables on mammal species abundance in a forest fragmented by road construction and in continuous forest in 8 study sites in Mt. Chirisan National Park, South Korea, from 2001 to 2004. We recorded tracks of 8 species of mammals, Siberian weasels (Mustela sibirica), yellow‐throated martens (Martes flavigula), Bengal cats (Felis bengalensis), wild boars (Sus scrofa), water deer (Hydropotes inermis), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), Korean hares (Lepus coreanus), and red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris), on the snow on 8 2‐km transects in our study areas. There were significant differences in density of snags, mean tree basal area, and in shrub coverage between the fragmented and unfragmented forest areas. We found significant differences in abundance index of tracks between the fragmented and unfragmented areas for 5 mammal species; the others had even distributions. Of the 8 mammal species analyzed, 5 species related to landscape and local vegetation variables in a stepwise approach with repeated measures. Landscape variables are significant predictors of abundance for many mammal species. Forest managers should consider multiple measures of forest fragmentation sensitivity when making forest management decisions.

Süt ve Ürünlerinde Brucellosis ve Önemi

Brucellosis, caused by Brucella spp, is a zoonotic disease which is patogenic to human. Brucella spp especially can be host cattle, sheep, goats, water bufalo pigs, dogs, camel, deer, certain poultry and human even tick and some artropod. Brucella spp are very important for public health because, along causing important economical losses, they infect man via milk and milk products of infected animals.

Non-invasive assessment of reproductive status in Chinese water deer ( Hydropotes inermis): Correlation with sexual behaviour

The annual reproductive cycle of Chinese water deer ( Hydropotes inermis), a nearly threatened small cervid species, was studied by means of fecal steroid analysis coupled with behavioural observations. Data showed a clearly seasonal reproductive pattern. In adult males, the onset of androgen secretion, in October, was concomitant with the first manifestations of territoriality. Androgen metabolites concentrations reached significant peak values in December, when matings occurred. In mature females, there was a close synchrony in reproductive states: lactational/seasonal anoestrus from June to November, pregnancy from December to May. Fecal progesterone metabolites profiles suggested that silent ovulations occurred at the onset of breeding season and that females conceived at their first ovulation with behavioural estrus. The female sexual receptivity state might last only a few hours. High levels of sniffing, parades and pursuits, concomitant of the highest concentrations of androgen, could allow the males to detect the furtive estrus in the females present in their territory. We concluded that the non-invasive method applied for the first time in this species was useful for the evaluation of the endocrine status and its relation with behaviour.

Chromosomal distribution and organization of three cervid satellite DNAs in Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis)

The species-specific profile and centromeric heterochromatin localization of satellite DNA in mammalian genomes imply that satellite DNA may play an important role in mammalian karyotype evolution and speciation. A satellite III DNA family, CCsatIII was thought to be specific to roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). In this study, however, this satellite DNA family was found also to exist in Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis) by PCR-Southern screening. A satellite III DNA element of this species was then generated from PCR-cloning by amplifying this satellite element using primer sequences from the roe deer satellite III clone (CCsatIII). The newly generated satellite III DNA along with previously obtained satellite I and II DNA clones were used as probes for FISH studies to investigate the genomic distribution and organization of these three satellite DNA families in centromeric heterochromatin regions of Chinese water deer chromosomes. Satellite I and II DNA were observed in the pericentric/centric regions of all chromosomes, whereas satellite III was distributed on 38 out of 70 chromosomes. The distribution and orientation of satellite DNAs I, II and III in the centromeric heterochromatin regions of the genome were further classified into four different types. The existence of a Capreolus-like satellite III in Chinese water deer implies that satellite III is not specific to the genus Capreolus (Buntjer et al., 1998) and supports the molecular phylogeny classification of Randi et al. (1998) which suggests that Chinese water deer and roe deer are closely related.

Genetic Diversity of Chinese Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis inermis): Implications for Conservation

The Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis inermis) is endemic to China. Historically, the species was widely distributed, but now, habitat loss and poaching have reduced its range and number drastically. In order to provide useful information for its conservation, we have investigated the genetic diversity and population structure of the Chinese water deer by analyzing the 403 bp fragment of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region (D-loop). Eighteen different haplotypes were detected in 40 samples. Overall, Chinese water deer have a relatively high-genetic diversity compared to other rare cervid species, with a haplotype diversity of 0.923+/-0.025 and nucleotide diversity of 1.318 +/- 0.146%. No obvious phylogenetic structure among haplotypes was found for samples of different origin. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed significant differentiation between the Zhoushan and the mainland population (F(ST)= 0.088, P < 0.001; Phi( ST ) = 0.075, P = 0.043), which suggests that exchanges of individuals between Zhoushan and the mainland should be avoided. We also recommend that a breeding center be set up for the mainland population.

Nuclear DNA microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity in captive populations of Chinese water deer

The Chinese water deer ( Hydropotes inermis inermis) is becoming rare as a result of poaching and habitat loss. In recent years, many captive populations of Chinese water deer have been established. However, little genetic information is available for management decision. In this study, we investigated the nuclear genetic diversity and population structure of two representative captive populations (different origin) with a Zhoushan archipelago wild population for control, using 7 microsatellite loci. There was a relatively high level of genetic diversity of Chinese water deer for the total samples, comparing to the other rare cervid species. The mean number of observed alleles per locus was 5.143. The average observed and expected heterozygosity values were 0.662 and 0.531, respectively. The diversity of Nanjing Hongshan Zoo populations (mainland originated) is higher than that of the other two (Zhoushan archipelago originated) populations. Furthermore, strong differentiation between them was detected. Finally, many management strategies were also put forward for the purpose of maintaining genetic diversity of the captive Chinese water deer populations.

Karyotypic evolution of a novel cervid satellite DNA family isolated by microdissection from the Indian muntjac Y-chromosome

A minilibrary was constructed from DOP-PCR products using microdissected Y-chromosomes of Indian muntjac as DNA templates. Two microclones designated as IM-Y4-52 and IM-Y5-7 were obtained from negative screening of all three cervid satellite DNAs (satellites I, II, and IV). These two microclones were 295 and 382 bp in size, respectively, and shared approximately 70% sequence homology. Southern blot analysis showed that the IM-Y4-52 clone was repetitive in nature with an approximately 0.32-kb register in HaeIII digest. Sequence comparison revealed no similarities to DNA sequences deposited in the GenBank database, suggesting that the microclone sequences were from a novel satellite DNA family designated as cervid satellite V. A subclone of an Indian muntjac BAC clone which screened positive for IM-Y4-52 had a 3,325-bp insert containing six intact monomers, four deleted monomers, and two partial monomers. The consensus sequence of the monomer was 328 bp in length and shared more than 80% sequence homology with every intact monomer. A zoo blot study using IM-Y4-52 as a probe showed that the strong hybridization with EcoRI digested male genomic DNA of Indian muntjac, Formosan muntjac, Chinese muntjac, sambar deer, and Chinese water deer. Female genomic DNA of Indian muntjac, Chinese water deer, and Formosan muntjac also showed positive hybridization patterns. Satellite V was found to specifically localize to the Y heterochromatin region of the muntjacs, sambar deer, and Chinese water deer and to chromosome 3 of Indian muntjac and the X-chromosome of Chinese water deer.

Expanding ranges of wild and feral deer in Great Britain

ABSTRACT 1. It is often stated that wild deer in Great Britain are increasing in range and number. This study presents the first quantified estimate of national range expansion for all six species. From national surveys of deer presence in 10 km squares between 1972 and 2002, the red deer range is estimated to have expanded at a compound rate of 0.3% per year, fallow deer at 1.8%, Chinese water deer at 2.0%, roe deer at 2.3%, Japanese sika at 5.3% and Reeves’ muntjac at 8.2%. 2. Each species is expected to expand its range further for the foreseeable future. The most widespread species, roe deer, is predicted to be present within 79% of all 10 km squares in mainland Britain within 10 years. 3. Deer range expansion brings a combination of benefits and costs, and some degree of management is considered necessary to limit both environmental damage and deer suffering.

Functional group classification and target species selection for Yancheng Nature Reserve, China

Yancheng Nature Reserve in east China is of great importance to the protection of biodiversity. It is a principal refuge for Red-crowned Cranes (Grus japonensis) and many other rare species, an important station for migrant waterfowls in the Asian Pacific, and a captive breeding base for Milu (Elaphurus davidianus). However, since the late 1980s, serious losses of biodiversity have been emerging in the protected area. In this study, to value objectively and improve management of the Yancheng Nature Reserve, a new approach for conservation management is proposed by virtue of the theories of self-organizing systems, functional group classification and target species selection. According to this approach, biological components in Yancheng Nature Reserve are classified into 10 supporting functional groups, eight target functional groups and 11 subordinate functional groups. Eight target species were selected from those target functional groups, i.e., G. japonensis, E. davidianus, Hydropotes inermis, Larus saundersi, Centropus toulou, Felis bengalensis, Paradoxornis heudei, and Platalea minor. Past observations in Yancheng Nature Reserve illustrate that the new approach is feasible, and this new approach will also benefit the management of the nature reserve.

시화호 인공습지 동물상 조사연구

The Shihwa wetland, a newly developed constructed wetland prototype in Korea with an area of approximately 104 ha, was established to improve the water quality severely polluted inflow streams into Lake Shihwa. Because this wetland could play a role as an ecological park in addition to improving the water quality, an ecological impact of the Shihwa constructed wetland has been a national concern. This paper focused on reporting the survey results for fauna among the entire investigation results for 3 years. A total of 129 terrestrial insect species have been observed from August 2001 to June 2002. Among them, Ischnura asiatica (Brauer) (order Odonata), Scymnus species (order Coleoptera) and Orthopteran species were frequently found in the reed bushes. A total of 77 bird species were recorded in a seasonal count, the maximum number of species was 34 in winter and the maximum number of individuals was 4,599 in summer. For the freshwater fish, only 4 species were found in 2000, however in 2001 and 2002, 12 species and 459 individuals were collected at four survey points. Among these 12 species, the dominant species were Mugil cephalus(36%), followed by Carassius auratus (25%) and Rhinogobius brunneus (22%). Meanwhile,12 individuals of Oryzias latipes were observed nearby, mostly downstream of the wetland. For the Herpetofauna at four survey areas, 3 species of amphibians and 3 species of reptiles were recorded. Because of remaining salinity in the soil of the Shiwha constructed wetland, Herpetofauna inflow to the wetland was scanty and mainly inhabited the upstream area. A total of 8 mammal species were recorded. Small-sized species were the striped field mouse, the Ussurian harvest-mouse, the Manchurian reed vole and the brown rat. Middle- and large-sized species were Korean water-deer, Korean raccoon dogs, Korean yellow weasels and feral cats.