Korean Mothers Research Articles

Ecological Factors Influencing Breastfeeding Decisions among Korean Immigrant Mothers in America

There are complex relationships among individual, family, community, and social factors related to breastfeeding. Immigrant mothers, specifically, face several unique challenges to practicing breastfeeding while negotiating these factors within two cultural worlds. Grounded in the theory of planned behavior and the ecological perspective, our qualitative study findings unveil a part of the complex and dynamic process of breastfeeding decision-making among Korean immigrant mothers in the United States. To elicit mothers’ underlying beliefs of attitude and intention toward breastfeeding as immigrants, we conducted in-person interviews with 13 pregnant and postpartum Korean immigrant mothers, ages ranging from 30 to 39. The findings revealed that Korean mothers held positive attitudes toward breastfeeding. However, translation of these positive attitudes toward breastfeeding into actual practice depended on the feasibility of actual breastfeeding by mothers. To overcome several barriers to breastfeeding, such as inadequate milk supply, health concerns, employment status, and the relationship with a firstborn child, many Korean mothers combined breastfeeding with formula feeding. The factors that shaped the development of beliefs and behavioral intentions toward breastfeeding among Korean immigrant mothers included the dynamic family interactions with their children, husbands, mothers, mothers-in-law, and sisters; support from friends and infant care experts; information available through various technology and media; and Korean-specific cultural traditions. Our findings suggest possible directions for future cross-cultural research on breastfeeding within diverse family contexts, and may inform the design of population specific intervention programs.

South Korean mothers’ parenting experiences in divorced mother-headed families

ABSTRACTThese multiple case studies show what in divorced mother-headed families of South Korea, mothers experience with regard to parenting their children aged 6 to 12 years. Data were collected from participant observations and semi-structured interviews with the participants, including mothers and their children in four divorced mother-headed families in South Korea, for a span of 11 months. Each case shows how divorced mothers’ parenting experiences are mobilized through their financial status and post-divorce coparenting patterns. The findings of this study are as follows. First, the mothers’ relationships with their children were formed by their current relationships with the ex-spouse. Secondly, mothers showed low expectations of children’s academic achievement and future career. Thirdly, mothers had ambivalent feelings towards their children due to financial difficulties and cumulative stress with the added strain of single parenting. Financial stability as well as cooperative parenting with ex-spouses after divorce helped lighten the mothers’ burdens of raising children in a divorced family and thereby reduced psychological vulnerability. Fourthly, mothers’ different communication styles differently played out in their relationships with children, which further affected interactive occasions in children’s in-home experiences.

Chinese and Korean mothers in England: motherhood, gender and employment

This article explores the lived experiences of first-generation Chinese and South Korean mothers living in England. The data are analysed using six intersecting categories: motherhood and gender ideology; educational level; reasons for migration; the length of stay in England; family economic circumstances; and the locality of settlement. The findings suggest that, while there appear to be stark differences in Chinese and South Korean mothers’ understanding of motherhood and employment, their accounts concurrently indicate commonalities in terms of persistent gender inequality at home, founded on patriarchal values. Out of the six interrelated categories, their motherhood and gender ideology obtained in their country of origin seems to have had a dominant influence in shaping these women’s experiences, along with their settlement into their respective ethnic communities.

Positioning of Korean Immigrant Mothers of Children with Disabilities

This study examines the ways in which Korean immigrant mothers take up roles to position themselves while they engage in their children’s education across a wide range of settings—academic, social, and linguistic. Data sources included interviews with four Korean mothers, home and community observations, and field notes. Positioning theory is a research approach that provides a useful analytic means for understanding positioning of Korean immigrant mothers as being parents of children with disabilities attending American schools. The results demonstrate that Korean immigrant mothers seek to learn how to be supportive mothers of children with disabilities by negotiating and facilitating contextual affordances and limitations between home, school, and community in order to obtain valuable potential resources for their children’s linguistic repertories and social skill development and their future success.

Maternal Weight Control Behaviors for Preschoolers Related to Children’s Gender

The purpose of this study was to identify significant factors associated with Korean mothers’ behaviors in controlling their preschool children’s weight and to examine gender differences among the significant associated factors. This study involved a convenience sample of 223 pairs of mothers and their preschool children (114 boys and 109 girls) in South Korea. Maternal desire for their children to lose weight, concern about children being overweight or obese, and interaction between gender and concern about children being overweight or obese were significant factors associated with maternal behaviors to control children’s weight. Regarding the interaction between gender and concern about children being overweight or obese, mothers who were concerned about their daughter being overweight or obese were more likely to control their child’s weight than those who were concerned about their son being overweight or obese. Additionally, mothers with concerns about their daughter being overweight or obese were more likely to conduct weight control behaviors for their child than mothers of girls without such concern. However, among mothers of boys, there was no difference in maternal behaviors to control their child’s weight between those with concern and without concern. Therefore, health care providers should understand gender specific maternal concerns regarding their child’s weight and provide tailored weight control interventions for mother and child pairs considering the child’s gender.

Korean ESL Parents’ Perspectives and Maintenance of Mother Tongue: A Case Study of Two Korean Mothers

This case study explores the language attitudes and perceptions of Korean parents, with regard to their children’s native language maintenance and ESL education in the US. The primary focuses are on (1) what aspects are held by Korean parents toward the maintenance of the native language in the US, and (2) how these perspectives operate in their children’s language education. The data for this study includes autobiographies and in-depth interviews with two Korean mothers whose children attend a Korean language program at a Korean school in the US. The findings indicate three emerging issues, including native language maintenance, practices of language using, and identity formation. The elicited data underscores that English exceeds its meaning as a single language. For the parents, the English proficiency signifies prospective social outcomes (e.g., employment, wealth, and education) for their children’s life in the future.

Maternal understanding of child discipline and maltreatment in the United States, South Korea, and Japan

The purpose of this study is to examine American, Korean, and Japanese mothers' perceptions of maltreatment, and the factors influencing those perceptions in the context of general parenting and discipline. Through a cross-cultural comparative approach, we hope to identify potential universalities as well as cultural specific perceptions of parenting behaviors. For this purpose, a total of 153 mothers with a child aged 3 to 6years participated in the current study. Participants came from East Coast of the United States (N=48); Seoul, Korea (N=65); Japan (Tokyo and Saitama) (N=40). A modified version of a previously established questionnaire (Ahn, Park, & Lee, 1998) assessed mothers' attitudes toward multiple disciplinary behaviors. This questionnaire presented 17 specific vignettes describing disciplinary scenarios that could occur while disciplining children in everyday life, some of which could be perceived as physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. Results of the study suggest significant differences between groups in terms of maternal perceptions of maltreatment and the factors influencing maternal perceptions. American mothers reported the highest mean score among the three countries in perceiving discipline centered on corporal punishment as physical abuse. Korean mothers displayed a dual attitude of perceiving the scenario as maltreatment, but also rating it as likely to occur in everyday life. Japanese mothers showed the most permissive attitude toward harsh parental behaviors among the three countries on the grounds that they considered a strict and punitive attitude as a method of discipline. Overall, mothers of all three countries had the lowest scores for perceiving the vignette corresponding to neglect as maltreatment.

Parent’s Perception towards Preschool Children’s English Education and their Ways of English Practice

This study examined perceptions of early childhood English education among Korean mothers whose children are aged five to seven, and children’s English practice at those ages. The data collected was drawn from seventy-five parents from the survey as well as from in-depth individual interviews with eleven parents, analyzed using grounded theory. The findings displayed that mothers thought English is necessary in Korea. However, they thought mastering Korean should be anterior to English and thus the appropriate age for English was seven, after acquiring Korean. Ironically, however, mothers started their children’s English practice earlier than they would have thought and mothers were involved in their children’s English practice by helping their children to do their homework. In addition, most parents depended on English institutions, private lessons, and kindergarten English programs to support their child’s English learning. This study is expected to delineate the perceptions of Korean mothers with preschool children on English education and the actual ways their children practice English.

한국과 중국 어머니의 자녀양육관 및 교육가치관과 조기 사교육 이용 실태 비교

The purpose of this study was to investigate the cultural differences of the view on childrearing, educational values, and the utilization of private education for young children between Korean and Chinese mothers. The subjects were 103 mothers in Seoul, Korea, and 105 mothers in Xiamen, China. The results showed that, in comparison to Korean mothers, Chinese mothers emphasized the values of cognitive achievement and anticipated private education to begin in early childhood. The types of private education that mothers used at the time of this study were different between the two countries. Through the comparative perspective, we support the idea that the characteristics in the two countries reflect not only their personal values but also the educational climate and social atmosphere. We discussed the reasons behind these results based on the social and cultural background.

A birth cohort study of Asian and Pacific Islander children reported for abuse or neglect by maternal nativity and ethnic origin

Research identifying racial and ethnic disparities in child protective services (CPS) involvement in the U.S. has focused on the overrepresentation of Black children and the growing Latino child population. Little attention has been paid to children of Asian origin, the most underrepresented group of children in the U.S. CPS system. The objective of this analysis was to examine subgroup patterns of CPS involvement in California for Asian and Pacific Islander (API) children prospectively based on maternal nativity and ethnic origin. We extracted data for API children born in California in 2006 and 2007 (N=138,858) from population-based birth records and linked those records to CPS records spanning the first 5 years of life (through 2012). We assessed distributional differences in risk indicators for the full birth cohort of API children and calculated a summary risk variable representing the cumulative number of risks present at birth. Generalized linear models were used to estimate API children’s adjusted relative risk of CPS report by subgroup. Overall, 12.2% of children born in California in the 2006–2007 birth cohort were API. The majority of API children had foreign-born mothers (80.9%). Children of U.S.-born Hawaiian, Guamanian, or Samoan mothers had the highest rate, with 20.4% being reported to CPS by their 5th birthday. The lowest rates of child abuse and neglect reporting were observed among children of foreign-born Asian Indian (2.5%), Korean (2.7%), and Chinese (2.8%) mothers, compared to 5.4% of all Asian and Pacific Islander children, and 14.8% of children in general population. Findings underscore the presence of disparities in CPS involvement among API children, which has implications for health and well-being across the life course and for targeted maltreatment prevention strategies.

Family Interdependence, Spiritual Perspective, Self-Transcendence, and Depression Among Korean College Students.

The purpose of this study was to examine the mechanisms that might account for the effects of spirituality and self-transcendence on Korean college students' depression among 197 Korean fathers, mothers, and children. A structural equation analysis indicated that spiritual perspective related to lower depression through the mediating pathway of self-transcendence for individuals. Mothers' spiritual perspective and self-transcendence related to their children's depression through the mediating pathway of their own depression, but the same was not true for fathers. Findings help explicate the intergenerational transmission of depression and important predictors of depression related to spirituality.

Korean Intercountry Adoption History: Culture, Practice, and Implications

Large-scale intercountry adoption emerged in a humanitarian crisis following the Korean War. With the growing demand in the United States for, and a steady supply of, adoptable South Korean children, as well as the limited government regulations, it has become permanent practice. Over the years, concerns were raised about unethical adoption practices. To address this issue, limited attempts have been made to promote in-country adoption and include birth mothers' perspectives in reformed adoption policies. However, these efforts have failed to bring about significant changes. The purpose of this article is to examine factors that influence intercountry adoption between the United States and South Korea and to discuss the challenges faced by South Korean birth mothers. Practice implications are also elucidated.

Acceptance of Disability and Hwa-Byung among Korean Mothers of Children with Developmental Disabilities

This study examined how child problem behaviour could be related to maternal Hwa-Byung (HB; Korean culture syndrome, meaning ‘anger illness’) among Korean mothers of children with developmental disabilities. Acceptance of disabilities and parenting stress were tested as mediators for the relationship between child problem behaviour and maternal HB. The results indicated that child problem behaviour alone (e.g. self-injurious and aggressive behaviours, yelling/screaming, and crying) were not related to maternal HB. Instead, child problem behaviour was not directly associated with maternal HB, but indirectly related to maternal HB through decreased acceptance of disability and increased parenting stress. The findings of the study support the importance of Acceptance and Commitment therapy and parenting stress intervention to prevent and treat HB among Korean mothers of children with developmental disabilities.

Fathers' indirect contribution to children's social-emotional development via mothers' psychological parenting environments

We sought to determine whether fathers' play participation exerted an indirect effect on young children's social-emotional development by supporting mothers' psychological parenting environments of depression, parenting stress, and parenting efficacy. We also identified differences by family income. Mothers responded to all measures. We sampled 72 low-income and 201 higher income Korean mothers with 3- to 5-year-old children. The results showed that fathers in higher income families indirectly contributed to young children's social-emotional development through their effect on mothers' depression and parenting stress, and fathers in low-income families indirectly contributed through their effect on mothers' depression, parenting stress, and parenting efficacy. Practical implications for improving young children's social-emotional development in each family income group are discussed.

Maternal beliefs in children’s bilingualism: A case study on Korean mothers in the United States

This study examined maternal beliefs in children`s bilingualism. Five Korean mothers who were raising young bilingual children in the United States were interviewed. The findings in this study showed that the Korean mothers believed in children`s bilingualism had positive values. They perceived Korean- English bilingualism as a positive influence on children`s well-being, children`s emotional makeup with their family, and children`s educational development. They played a critical role in teaching Korean in various ways based on their positive beliefs. However, they worked individually on their children`s bilingual education and had difficulty in receiving support from the school or the community. They needed support from the school system to maintain their beliefs. The results of the study suggested that American mainstream schools should work together with parents from minority groups and foster a supportive environment for Korean-English bilingual children.

Parental Involvement in English Education: Discursive Positionings of Korean Mothers

This study adopts a micro-perspective toward examining the parental involvement of Korean mothers in their children’s English Education. The data are interview extracts involving two mothers from different socioeconomic backgrounds. By analyzing the discursive positions, affective stances, and linguistic devices that the mothers endogenously construct throughout the interview, this study demonstrates the usefulness of applying positioning theory to the situated investigation of parental involvement. The findings indicate that both mothers narrate from the position of responsible mothers but are limited in their ability to directly teach their children themselves. In coping with their limitations, the two mothers drastically differ in that one resorts to the private sector while the other is restricted to advising her child to simply memorize spelling. These findings shed light on the possible applications of positioning theory as a data-driven, methodological framework for examining Korean mothers and their varying dimensions of parental involvement across different socioeconomic classes from the participants' own perspective.

결혼이주여성의 배구동호회 참여의미와 한국사회 · 문화 적응과정

The purpose of this study is to examine the process on adaption to Korean culture and society by marriage immigrant women’s participation in volleyball club. And based upon the data from their volleyball club activities, to present the significance of their participation in volleyball club. This study was conducted with subjects who were sampled from U volleyball club members in A province suing sampling method of in-depth interview. We employed in-depth interviews to collect data from 9 research participants, which were analyzed according to 6 levels of qualitative data analyzing methods of creswell(2013). Based upon the result, the following conclusions were drawn. First, significance of marriage immigrant women’s participation in volleyball club can be understood as means of reflecting stress release, health improvement, motivation for adapting to life in Korea, providing employment, formation of personal relations. Second, in the process of marriage immigrant women’s social adjustment, they seem to experience Korean islands culture, empathize difficulties and experience unique Korean culture. Last, Adapting to Korean culture and society through volleyball club activities, they are recognized as Korean volleyball club member and identified as Korean mothers. It also provide solution to conflict with Korean mother-in-law, escape from outsider life and establishment of suitable marital life, which helps good adaptation to Korean society.

Korean Immigrant Mothers’ Praise and Encouragement, Acculturation, and Their Children’s Socioemotional and Behavioral Difficulties

SYNOPSISObjective. This study examined associations among Korean immigrant mothers’ use of praise and encouragement, their acculturation, their children’s socioemotional and behavioral difficulties, and the moderating role of child gender and age. Design. One hundred and twenty Korean immigrant mothers in the United States and their preschool children participated. Maternal praise and encouragement were observed during free-play interactions. Mothers reported their acculturation level, and teachers reported on children’s difficulties. Results. Mothers used process praise most frequently. Higher maternal American acculturation was associated with more use of person and other praise. Higher Korean acculturation was associated with greater use of person praise among younger children, but less use of person praise among older children. Mothers higher in American acculturation used more encouragement with older children only. Maternal encouragement was associated with fewer child difficulties. Conclusion. Korean mothers’ acculturation impacted their use of praise and encouragement, and maternal encouragement may be important for decreasing children’s difficulties.

Ambivalent gender power in interstitial space: The case of transnational South Korean mothers

ABSTRACTThis article describes the maintenance of transnationally split families and the creation of new relationships in the new social space occupied by Korean mothers. During two years of ethnographic field-work in four cities in New York State in the US, I examined how family members communicated with each other in order to maintain long-distance relationships through physical co-presence and virtual communication via information and communication technologies (ICTs). Transnational actors used these selectively based on socioeconomic and cultural practices. In the case of the South Korean mothers, mutual (financial) surveillance and communication filtering were selected differently, depending on socioeconomic factors. Gendered power relations surrounding ICTs and transnationalism cannot be seen as unidirectional, but represent a rather complex and ambivalent picture. This study investigates women’s strategies for managing family affairs, mutual surveillance by spouses, communication filtering and accumulation of social capital in the interstices of a transnational social space.

Korean Mothers Attitudes and Motivations Toward Bilingual Education in ESL Context

Korean Mothers Attitudes and Motivations Toward Bilingual Education in ESL Context