Word Knowledge Research Articles

Does word knowledge account for the effect of world knowledge on pronoun interpretation?

Abstract To what extent can statistical language knowledge account for the effects of world knowledge in language comprehension? We address this question by focusing on a core aspect of language understanding: pronoun resolution. While existing studies suggest that comprehenders use world knowledge to resolve pronouns, the distributional hypothesis and its operationalization in large language models (LLMs) provide an alternative account of how purely linguistic information could drive apparent world knowledge effects. We addressed these confounds in two experiments. In Experiment 1, we found a strong effect of world knowledge plausibility (measured using a norming study) on responses to comprehension questions that probed pronoun interpretation. In experiment 2, participants were slower to read continuations that contradicted world knowledge-consistent interpretations of a pronoun, implying that comprehenders deploy world knowledge spontaneously. Both effects persisted when controlling for the predictions of GPT-3, an LLM, suggesting that pronoun interpretation is at least partly driven by knowledge about the world and not the word. We propose two potential mechanisms by which knowledge-driven pronoun resolution occurs, based on validation- and expectation-driven discourse processes. The results suggest that while distributional information may capture some aspects of world knowledge, human comprehenders likely draw on other sources unavailable to LLMs.

Examining EFL learners’ comprehension of derivational forms: The role of overlap with base word knowledge, word frequency, and contextual support

This study examines the degree to which low and high proficiency English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ knowledge of base words (e.g. develop) overlaps with knowledge of their derivational forms (e.g. developer, redevelop) when reading. Low and high proficiency learners’ comprehension of derivational forms is also explored in relation to the frequency of occurrence of derivational forms and whether the derivational forms are presented with or without semantic context. A battery of meaning-recall tests measuring knowledge of base words and their derivational forms of varying frequencies of occurrence (high, mid, and low) in semantically contextualized and non-contextualized conditions were administered to 150 Japanese EFL learners. Results showed that learner knowledge of base words was not strongly indicative of equivalent knowledge of those base word’s derivational forms (i.e. low knowledge overlap). The analysis of knowledge overlap (Jaccard’s Index) showed that when participants knew a base word, they were likely to know its derivational form on average a little over 50% of the time. Mixed-effects ANOVA indicated that derivational forms’ frequency of occurrence in a written corpus strongly moderated their meaning recall. Learners’ lexical knowledge, however, only provided a negligible effect. Further, for both low and high proficiency learners, test items containing semantic context did not enhance learners’ meaning recall of derivational forms when reading.

Productive Word Knowledge Development and Its Relation to Informal Contact with English through Various Leisure Activities

Much of the previous research that has provided evidence for the relationship between engagement in out-of-class activities and vocabulary outcomes has focused on receptive word gains. However, little research has attempted to explore this relationship with productive word knowledge. Additionally, the contribution of various gaming genres to the relationship is particularly underexplored. The present mixed-method study fills these lacunas by employing a productive vocabulary levels test, a questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews to explore the relationship between 35 different leisure activities that English as a foreign language (EFL) learners engage in outside the classroom and their productive vocabulary growth. The study’s findings revealed that although learners frequently engaged in different activities, they spent most of their free time gaming, which contributed the most to productive word knowledge learning. Regression analysis showed that two gaming genres, massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) and first-person shooters, significantly predicted productive knowledge of words. Qualitative analysis demonstrated that, in general, the participants had a positive perception of informal engagement with English activities outside formal learning contexts.

The role of translation equivalents in bilingual word learning.

Bilingual environments present an important context for word learning. One feature of bilingual environments is the existence of translation equivalents (TEs)-words in different languages that share similar meanings. Documenting TE learning over development may give us insight into the mechanisms underlying word learning in young bilingual children. Prior studies of TE learning have often been confounded by the fact that increases in overall vocabulary size with age lead to greater opportunities for learning TEs. To address this confound, we employed an item-level analysis, which controls for the age trajectory of each item independently. We used Communicative Development Inventory data from four bilingual datasets (two English-Spanish and two English-French; total N=419) for modeling. Results indicated that knowing a word's TE increased the likelihood of knowing that word for younger children and for TEs that are more similar phonologically. These effects were consistent across datasets, but varied across lexical categories. Thus, TEs may allow bilingual children to bootstrap their early word learning in one language using their knowledge of the other language. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Bilingual children must learn words that share a common meaning across both languages, that is, translation equivalents, like dog in English and perro in Spanish. Item-level models explored how translation equivalents affect word learning, in addition to child-level (e.g., exposure) and item-level (e.g., phonological similarity) factors. Knowing a word increased the probability of knowing its corresponding translation equivalent, particularly for younger children and for more phonologically-similar translation equivalents. These findings suggest that young bilingual children use their word knowledge in one language to bootstrap their learning of words in the other language.

An Exploratory Criterion Validation of Three Meaning-Recall Vocabulary Test Item Formats

In an upcoming coverage-comprehension study, we plan to assess learners’ meaning-recall knowledge of words as they occur in the study’s reading passage. As several meaning-recall test formats exist, the purpose of this small-scale study (N = 10) was to determine which of three formats was most similar to a criterion interview regarding mean score and the consistency of correct/incorrect classifications (match rate, k = 30).In Test 1, the prompt consisted of only the target item, and a written translation of its meaning was elicited. In Test 2, the prompt was a short sentence in which a target item was highlighted, and a written translation of only that target item was requested. In Test 3, the prompt was the same sentence as in Test 2, but the target item was unhighlighted, and participants were requested to translate the entire sentence. Finally, in the criterion interview, participants were asked to demonstrate their understanding of the target items in the same prompt sentences as in Tests 2–3. The results indicated that Test 3 produced a mean score and match rate most similar to the interview, followed by Test 2, with Test 1 being the least similar. The paper discusses several factors explaining differences in test performance that were explored during the interview

Early access to language supports number mapping skills in deaf children.

The ability to associate different types of number representations referring to the same quantity (symbolic Arabic numerals, signed/spoken number words, and nonsymbolic quantities), is an important predictor of overall mathematical success. This foundational skill-mapping-has not been examined in deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children. To address this gap, we studied 188 4 1/2 to 9-year-old DHH and hearing children and systematically examined the relationship between their language experiences and mapping skills. We asked whether the timing of children's language exposure (early vs. later), the modality of their language (signed vs. spoken), and their rote counting abilities related to mapping performance. We found that language modality did not significantly relate to mapping performance, but timing of language exposure and counting skills did. These findings suggest that early access to language, whether spoken or signed, supports the development of age-typical mapping skills and that knowledge of number words is critical for this development.

Measurement of Language Knowledge as a Controversial Elaborative Linguistic Framework

This article is an attempt to determine the significance of vocabulary knowledge by describing its components and features on the basis of different existing models in such a way as to explore the language knowledge measurement criteria and find out the extent to which language knowledge is adequately measured. In fact, a plethora of research has been conducted on teaching and learning vocabulary, and testing vocabulary size. Though this linguistic element has been a controversial issue for so long, many scholars in the field of linguistics agreed upon the utility and the crucial role it has in relation to language teaching, learning, and testing. However, the investigation of the vocabulary knowledge takes into consideration three different aspects. The first aspect deals with vocabulary measurement, with the clarification of the differentiation between language knowledge in terms of its inference and language performance in terms of its observation. The second aspect examins the meaning of “word knowledge” by distinguishing between receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. The third aspect deals with the qualitative aspect of the learners’ vocabulary knowledge in terms of understanding by identifying “breadth” and “depth”. This article also paves the way for the review of vocabulary size and the counting of family words on the basis of rigorous empirical studies in this field.

Language experience matters for the emergence of early numerical concepts

Research has shown a link between the acquisition of numerical concepts and language, but exactly how linguistic input matters for numerical development remains unclear. Here, we examine both symbolic (number word knowledge) and non-symbolic (numerical discrimination) numerical abilities in a population in which access to language is limited early in development—oral deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) preschoolers born to hearing parents who do not know a sign language. The oral DHH children demonstrated lower numerical discrimination skills, verbal number knowledge, conceptual understanding of the word “more”, and vocabulary relative to their hearing peers. Importantly, however, analyses revealed that group differences in the numerical tasks, but not vocabulary, disappeared when differences in the amount of time children had had auditory access to spoken language input via hearing technology were taken into account. Results offer insights regarding the role language plays in emerging number concepts.

Small-group vocabulary intervention combining elements from shared book Reading and the Lexicon pirate method – A pilot study of multilingual children with speech, language and communication needs

Multilingual children living in areas with low socioeconomic status (SES) are at an increased risk of having speech, language and communication needs (SLCN). Many multilingual children with SLCN in Sweden have insufficient basic vocabulary knowledge in the majority language, preventing them from achieving the school's learning goals. However, there is a lack of studies of interventions that could improve vocabulary development in this group, and that can be delivered in an everyday educational setting. This pilot study evaluates the effect of a school-based vocabulary group intervention, which combines elements from shared book reading and the Lexicon Pirate method, on vocabulary skills. A non-randomised pretest–posttest control group design was used. Eighteen six- to seven-year-old multilingual children attending preschool class in low SES areas either received intervention (n = 9) or were included in a control group (n = 9). The intervention group participated in 12 intervention sessions over six weeks. Word knowledge, semantic fluency, and comprehension of semantic relations were assessed pre- and post-intervention. Results revealed that children in the intervention group demonstrated significant gains in knowledge of both trained and untrained words, compared to the control group. No effects were found on semantic fluency or comprehension of semantic relations.

Pelatihan Microsoft Office Word bagi Siswa Kelas VI SD Negeri 1 Desa Kecomberan Kecamatan Talun Kabupaten Cirebon

The Microsoft Office application plays a crucial role in today's digital era, utilized by various groups ranging from primary school children to university students and professionals. Its usage is increasingly popular across different sectors, including offices and the education sector. As a result, training activities are carried out within the context of community service through the Thematic Community Service Program (KKN Tematik) of Politeknik LP3I Cirebon Campus. The purpose of this training is to enhance the knowledge and understanding of primary school students, particularly in the use of Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel. This training takes place at SD Negeri 1 Kecomberan. The outcomes of this training demonstrate that participants are enthusiastic and capable of answering post-test questions related to basic Microsoft Word knowledge effectively. The method employed involves providing guidance to students to directly practice the conveyed material. In conclusion, this training provides significant benefits to primary school students in enhancing their knowledge of Microsoft Office applications, specifically Microsoft Word.

Vocabulary Learning Strategies Used by Class Ten Students

Learning vocabulary is a key component of communication and comprehension. Students need to use effective Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) to learn and retain new words and expand their word knowledge. This quantitative study used a descriptive survey research design to find out the VLS of class ten students. The participants consisted of 30 class ten students who were sampled using stratified sampling method. The data was collected employing structured questionnaire which included 30 rating scale questions. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and frequency counts to identify the most and least used strategies. The findings revealed that the students used a range of strategies, but some were more dominant than others. One of the most common cognitive strategies was guessing the meaning of unknown words from context, indicating that the students relied on their prior knowledge and reading skills. Similarly, one of the most popular social strategies was asking for clarification from teachers or peers, suggesting that the students valued the role of interaction and feedback in vocabulary learning. These results demonstrated that the students were flexible and resourceful in their strategy use and could adapt to different vocabulary learning tasks and goals. The study has some limitations, such as the limited sample size and the potential inaccuracies in self-reported data. Therefore, further research with larger and more representative samples is recommended. Despite these limitations, this study contributed to the understanding of VLS among class ten students in Nepal and offered implications for vocabulary teaching and learning.

63 Examining TOPF Performance in a Neurodegenerative Population

Objective:Cognitive tests on which performance is unrelated to brain pathology are considered “hold” tests and are often used to estimate cognitive abilities prior to injury or disease. Amongst the most commonly used “hold” tests are measures of irregular word reading, such as the Test of Premorbid Functioning (TOPF). Measures of irregular word reading assess ability to accurately pronounce phonetic irregularities based on prior experience and word knowledge, and tend to be insensitive to most forms of brain pathology (Lezak, 2012). However, research examining whether a relationship exists between neurodegenerative diseases and decline in irregular word reading is limited. The few studies completed have demonstrated a decline in irregular word reading in neurodegenerative disease in general (Berg, Durant, Banks, & Miller, 2016) and Alzheimer’s dementia specifically (McFarlane, Welch, & Rodgers, 2006). However, no known research has been published examining whether irregular word reading and TOPF scores differ depending on cognitive classifications commensurate with DSM-V diagnoses (i.e., mild or major neurocognitive disorder, etc.), or presumed neurological etiology.Participants and Methods:Patients were enrolled from the University of Colorado Hospital Neuropsychology Clinic. This study was a retrospective review of consecutive referrals over the age of 65 to the University of Colorado Hospital Neuropsychology Clinic from 2019 to present. The TOPF was administered along with a full neuropsychological battery and patients were clinically classified by severity of cognitive impairment (e.g., Normal, Mild Neurocognitive Disorder, Major Neurocognitive Disorder) and presumed neurologic etiology (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), vascular cognitive impairment (VCI), and mixed dementia (AD and VCI). TOPF Raw scores were used for all analyses. Correlation analysis was conducted to determine significant relationships between various demographic variables and TOPF performance. ANCOVA analyses were conducted to examine differences on TOPF performance by diagnostic classification and differences on TOPF performance by presumed neurologic etiology.Results:Correlation determined a significant relationship between TOPF performance and education (r = .51, p < .001), but not age (p = .092) or gender (p = .680). ANCOVA revealed a significant effect of TOPF performance on diagnostic group classification after controlling for education, F(2, 504)= 26.45, p < .001. Post hoc analysis revealed that those diagnosed with Major Neurocognitive Disorder performed the worst on the TOPF (M=39.801 ± .958), followed by those diagnosed with Mild Neurocognitive Disorder (M= 45.371 ± .767), while those diagnosed as cognitively normal performed the best (M= 49.826 ± .993). Additional ANCOVA analysis revealed a significant effect of TOPF performance on presumed neurologic etiology after controlling for education, F(3,148)=6.07, p = .001. Post hoc analyses revealed that participants with suspected AD (M= 40.728 ± 1.613) and those with suspected VCI (M= 32.804 ± 3.480) performed worse on the TOPF compared to those with suspected PD (M=46.964 ± 1.506), (p=.042 and p = .004, respectively).Conclusions:Results suggest that TOPF performance in older individuals is sensitive to cognitive impairment. Furthermore, these results suggest that this sensitivity may be further influenced by presumed neurologic etiology. These findings are consistent with prior studies which demonstrated a decline in irregular word reading in individuals with neurodegenerative diseases.

67 Are these familiar words? Analyzing the utility of a new Spanish verbal memory test for children in North Texas

Objective:The American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology’s (AACN) Relevance 2050 Initiative goals highlight the need for new assessment methods that are inclusive of the rising heterogeneous population in the US. In 2022, the Texas Education Agency reported that approximately 20% of the student population in Texas public schools are English learners (ELs), and approximately 90% of them are Spanish-speaking. In an effort to address the need for more Spanish cognitive measures normed in the US, a pediatric neuropsychology research team in North Dallas developed the Spanish Verbal Memory Test for Children (SVMT-C). To assist with establishing its validity, this study aims to corroborate that the words chosen for the list are familiar to children of different cultural backgrounds in North Texas.Participants and Methods:Enrollment of healthy, Spanish-speaking children between 6.0 and 17.11 years old within the Dallas Fort-Worth (DFW) metroplex began in January 2022 and continues to date. Study participation entails completing an in-person testing session with the child, while the parent/legal guardian completes a word-related survey along with other forms. The parent survey asks parents to indicate their child’s knowledge of 45 words (15 are target words). The testing session with the child includes completion of several cognitive tests (e.g., SVMT-C, EOWPVT-4:SBE) and a posttest survey that measures the child’s knowledge of the target words on the SVMT-C. The EOWPVT-4:SBE was used to estimate vocabulary level in Spanish to support proficiency determinations.Results:To date, 23 parent-child dyads have participated in the study, and 7 different countries of origin are represented in the overall sample. Data of children who earned SS<85 in Spanish on the vocabulary test were omitted, leaving the pediatric sample at n=20. Ages ranged between 6.2 and 15.2 years old. Eighteen children were bilingual, one was monolingual, and one was multilingual. Only Spanish-speaking parents completed the Spanish Verbal Memory Test Survey, leaving the parent sample at n=21. The child survey revealed that 95% of the children (19 of 20) knew all 15 target words; only one 6-year-old child did not know a word, which contradicted their parent’s report. The parent survey revealed that 90% of parents reported their child knew all 15 target words and 100% of parents reported their child knew 14 of 15 words; only two parents (19 of 21) were unsure if their child knew one of the words but the child then earned a score of 100% on their survey.Conclusions:Creating a verbal memory measure in Spanish for use in the US presents a set of unique challenges because of the variability in terminology that exists in the language. Lack of familiarity with terminology may influence performance and invalidate results. In this endeavor, the goal was to recognize these nuances and create a relevant measure that uses common words for Spanish-speaking children regardless of cultural background. Thus far, the data supports the appropriateness of the words listed in the SVMT-C with a 100% familiarity rate among children ages 7 to 15 years old.

Vocabulary Instruction Embedded in Narrative Intervention: A Repeated Acquisition Design Study With First Graders at Risk of Language-Based Reading Difficulty.

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect of vocabulary instruction embedded in the narrative intervention on the immediate and retained definitional knowledge of taught words for first graders at risk for language-related reading difficulties. We employed a repeated acquisition design with innovative quality features and supplemental statistics with 11 treatment students and three control students. In the context of the school's multitiered system of supports, treatment students received 30-min small group interventions, 4 days a week for 12 weeks. Intervention involved story retelling and personal story generation lessons, both of which emphasized the learning and practicing of target vocabulary words in each story. Pre- and postprobes of the taught definitions were conducted every week. According to visual analysis conventions of single-case research, there was a consistent pattern of improvement from pre- to postprobes for all treatment participants, but for none of the control participants. Retention was also consistently observed, when measured at Week 13. Supplemental statistics confirmed that large effects were associated with the intervention. Vocabulary instruction embedded in narrative intervention led to meaningful acquisition and retention of taught vocabulary for students at risk of language-based reading difficulty.

Eye-tracking reading-while-listening: Challenges and methodological considerations in vocabulary research

Learners need to know a considerable number of words to function in a second or foreign language. To help increase their word knowledge, learners are encouraged to engage in activities that provide a rich source of vocabulary like listening to music and audio books, and watching films, television, and video. In many of these types of activities, learners can listen to and read ‘matched’ content (i.e., text is both written and aural). For example, viewing television programs and films is often accompanied by subtitles that closely adhere to the auditory input. While reading and listening to matched content may be a fairly common experience, we have little understanding of how comprehenders process the two sources of information, nor how the addition of audio changes word reading or might impact word learning. Eye-tracking provides a means of measuring the effort associated with processing words, yet very few studies have explicitly investigated written-word processing while listening and even fewer have examined this in the context of word learning. The technology allows researchers to synchronize eye-movements in reading to an auditory text, but requires technical know-how. The goal of this research methods paper is to provide methodological and technical guidance on the use of eye-tracking in reading-while-listening with an emphasis on investigating vocabulary learning and processing.

Acquiring the First Words by Persian Toddlers: A Longitudinal Study Using the MacAuthor-Bates Inventory

Introduction: A robust vocabulary improves all areas of communication. Vocabulary is critical to a child’s success to think and learn about the world. Expanding a child’s knowledge of words provides unlimited access to new information. This study describes the early development of comprehension and production vocabularies in a group of Persian-speaking toddlers.
 Materials and Methods: The mothers of 33 typical, Persian-speaking toddlers during 6 months (from 12-14 months to 19-21 months) completed the Persian McArthur-Bates communicative development inventories 7 times per month. The collected data were analyzed via the SPSS software, version 21, through non-parametric tests.
 Results: The results indicated that the only significant increase for both vocabularies was between 15 and 16 months (P comprehension=0.045 and P production=0.027). The development of phrase comprehension showed significant increases during six months (P<0.001). Further analysis of production vocabulary growth demonstrated the word spurt in each child (in different months and with different word levels). According to the figures, the composition of vocabulary production was different during the selected 6 months. Nouns were the largest group during the 50-, 100-, and 200-word stages; however, verbs presented a faster rate of development. Both genders showed significant changes during follow-ups (P<0.001) and there were no significant differences between the vocabularies of different genders (P>0.05).
 Conclusion: Persian-speaking children follow commonalities of lexical development reported for different languages; however, few differences could be traced between these children and their peers from other languages.

Out‐of‐classroom L2 vocabulary acquisition: The effects of digital activities and school vocabulary

AbstractExtramural exposure, through activities such as watching TV, gaming, networking, and online reading, has become an important source of vocabulary acquisition in English as a foreign language, particularly when learners’ first language (L1) has many cognates with English. Our study examined extramural vocabulary acquisition of 10th‐grade L1 speakers of noncognate languages over one school year and explored the effects of digital activities and initial lexical knowledge of the participants on their vocabulary gains. Learners reported the amount of digital activity, took a vocabulary pretest, and kept vocabulary diaries where they recorded, on a weekly basis, the new words they encountered. At the end of the study, each student took a personalized test that included all the words recorded in their personal diary. The results indicate that (a) all learners gained some out‐of‐school word knowledge, (b) students with better initial vocabulary knowledge gained more words, and (c) the initial knowledge contributed to out‐of‐school learning more than the amount of digital activity.

Eğitim Yönetiminde Enformatik Çerçevede Bilişim Sistemlerinin İncelenmesi

The word knowledge corresponds to two different concepts in our language. Firstly, information is characterized as a generally held opinion about things or concepts, and secondly as processed data that describes various qualities of things or concepts. Informatics is the science of regular and intelligent processing of information that a person uses in his communication in technical, economic and social fields and which is the basis of science, especially through electronic machines. A branch of applied science that studies the phenomenon of information, information storage, access strings, methods of processing, transferring and using information, taking into account the benefits of society and humanity. Informatics, which is an interdisciplinary teaching and service segment, also covers topics related to the design, development and production of various tools used in informatics and information access systems, including computers inside. Dec. In addition, many issues that fall within the field of automation, which covers techniques related to the automatic regulation of all kinds of industrial production, are also included in the scope of informatics in a broad sense. In this sense, information, like information, has existed throughout historical periods, even though it has been differentiated within the temporal process. Information has a dynamic and variable structure. Since the second half of the twentieth century, the information society and the information society are mentioned with the information technologies that have settled on the world agenda and daily life with increasing speed step by step, especially with the development and change created in the last decade of the century. More information is more easily accessible in a shorter time. The desired information can be easily disseminated to the desired number of people and institutions in a short time and more information can be stored. Thus, with the innovations caused by information technologies, many applications are gaining international quality. Key Words: Educational Management, Information, Informatics, Information Systems

Relative Effectiveness of Morphological Analysis Training and Context Clue Training on Multidimensional Vocabulary Knowledge

The study explored the relative effectiveness of morphological analysis training and context clue training on multidimensional EFL vocabulary knowledge. A total of 90 college English learners were equally and randomly assigned to three groups: a morphological analysis group, a context clue group, and a control group. Vocabulary development was measured in four dimensions: inferencing, grammar, meaning, and collocation. The ANOVA results indicated that both experimental groups outperformed the control group in multiple aspects of word knowledge. In addition, in the word inferencing and meaning tests, the morphological group demonstrated significantly better performance; while the context clue group showed superior word grammar and collocation knowledge. Relevant implications are discussed based on the findings.

Vocabulary Acquisition in New and Learned Contexts Using Immersive Virtual Reality

Vocabulary acquisition is important for learning a language. Language learners need multiple encounters with a word to add unknown word aspects to their word knowledge or to strengthen their knowledge of previously learned word aspects. Combining vocabulary acquisition with immersive virtual reality (IVR) makes it possible to have such multiple encounters. In IVR, objects representing target words can be shown in the same virtual environment as they were first encountered (learned context), but also in a new virtual environment (new context). To investigate learning words in either a new or learned context in IVR we built Wics (words in context system). We used Wics to carry out an experiment in which participants could learn 32 Japanese words, represented by 3D objects, in three sessions. In the second and third learning session all words were shown in either a new context, with a changed environment and a changed visual representation of the word objects, or a learned context, where only the placement of the objects was changed. Performance scores for an immediate and a delayed post-test (one week later) revealed no significant differences in performance between conditions. However, there was a tendency towards participants spending more time on learning the words in the learned context condition. We believe Wics to be the first IVR system to provide learners with multiple learning sessions to provide multiple encounters with the same words in different contexts, where learners have control over their own explorative learning, and where the post-tests are inside IVR.