Print Knowledge Research Articles

Beyond book reading: Narrative participation styles in family reminiscing predict children’s print knowledge in low-income Chilean families

Narratives in reminiscing contexts are an important tool in developing literacy abilities. We examined whether parents’ narrative participation styles in reminiscing contexts were related to gains in children’s vocabulary and print knowledge. Participants were 210 low-income Chilean parents and their pre-kindergarten children (M=53months). Parents and children were videotaped discussing a past positive and negative experience at the beginning of pre-kindergarten. Children’s vocabulary and print knowledge were assessed at the beginning and end of pre-kindergarten. Parents’ narrative styles in conversations about negative, but not positive, experiences had differential predictive power over children’s print knowledge, but not vocabulary, longitudinally. Implications for policy makers, researchers and educators working with low-income Chilean families are discussed.

Thresholds in the association between quality of teacher–child interactions and preschool children’s school readiness skills

The present study examines the extent to which the association between school readiness skills and preschool classroom quality is higher in classrooms in which quality is above a threshold than when quality is below that threshold. A sample of 222 teachers and 875 children participated in a large, multi-site study. Classroom quality was defined as effective teacher–child interactions and measured by the Classroom Assessment Scoring System. Children’s language, literacy, and inhibitory control were assessed in the fall and spring. Using predetermined thresholds for high quality, associations between quality and children’s skills in inhibitory control and phonological awareness were greater when CLASS Emotional Support was rated higher, while associations between quality and skills in literacy (phonological awareness and print knowledge) were greater in classrooms in which CLASS Classroom Organization scores were higher. Effect sizes were moderate to large (d=0.43–0.84) for associations between outcomes and quality in the higher quality ranges. Empirical approaches to identify thresholds, indicated relations between inhibitory control and both Classroom Organization and Emotional Support as higher when teacher–child interactions were rated as more effective. These results contribute to emerging evidence that features of classroom experience, such as qualities of teacher–child interactions, are more strongly associated with higher levels of children’s school readiness skills when the nature of those experiences (i.e., interactions) are in the upper ranges of the distribution. However, the evidence reported herein do not warrant recommendations for specific thresholds and inconsistencies in the study’s findings in comparison to previous research require further investigation before direct implications for thresholds in quality would be warranted.

Using Recognition & Response (R&R) to improve children’s language and literacy skills: Findings from two studies

Two studies evaluated Recognition & Response (R&R)—an instructional system consisting of formative assessment, foundational instruction, and targeted small-group lessons designed for use with pre-kindergarteners. Study 1 involved 174 four-year-old children (83 target and 91 comparison) from 24 classrooms in community-based programs, and Study 2 involved 213 four-year-old children (106 target and 107 comparison) from 24 classrooms in one large school district. In both studies, teachers administered a brief, standardized language and literacy assessment to select the four lowest-scoring children within each classroom (Recognition), and then provided small-group lessons to these target children using a curriculum focused on language and literacy skills (Response). Across both studies, the results indicated that target children who received the small-group lessons showed larger gains on some language and literacy skills than a comparison group consisting of classmates who had lower than average scores at baseline and did not receive the small-group lessons. Target children made greater gains than the comparison group in print knowledge in Study 1 and in vocabulary and phonological awareness in Study 2. Both studies found high levels of implementation fidelity and treatment acceptability among the teachers who implemented the intervention.

Predicting dyslexia using prereading skills: the role of sensorimotor and cognitive abilities.

BackgroundIt is well established that phonological awareness, print knowledge and rapid naming predict later reading difficulties. However, additional auditory, visual and motor difficulties have also been observed in dyslexic children. It is examined to what extent these difficulties can be used to predict later literacy difficulties.MethodAn unselected sample of 267 children at school entry completed a wide battery of tasks associated with dyslexia. Their reading was tested 2, 3 and 4 years later and poor readers were identified (n = 42). Logistic regression and multiple case study approaches were used to examine the predictive validity of different tasks.ResultsAs expected, print knowledge, verbal short‐term memory, phonological awareness and rapid naming were good predictors of later poor reading. Deficits in visual search and in auditory processing were also present in a large minority of the poor readers. Almost all poor readers showed deficits in at least one area at school entry, but there was no single deficit that characterised the majority of poor readers.ConclusionsResults are in line with Pennington's (2006) multiple deficits view of dyslexia. They indicate that the causes of poor reading outcome are multiple, interacting and probabilistic, rather than deterministic.

Inhibitory Control of Spanish-Speaking Language-Minority Preschool Children: Measurement and Association With Language, Literacy, and Math Skills

Children’s self-regulation, including components of executive function such as inhibitory control, is related concurrently and longitudinally with elementary school children’s reading and math abilities. Although several recent studies have examined links between preschool children’s self-regulation or executive function and their academic skill development, few included large numbers of Spanish-speaking language-minority children. Among the fastest growing segments of the U.S. school-age population, many of these children are at significant risk of academic difficulties. We examined the relations between inhibitory control and academic skills in a sample containing a large number of Spanish-speaking preschoolers. Overall, the children demonstrated substantial academic risk based on preschool-entry vocabulary scores in the below-average range. Children completed assessments of language, literacy, and math skills in English and Spanish, when appropriate, at the start and end of their preschool year, along with a measure of inhibitory control, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task, which was administered at the start of the preschool year in the child’s dominant conversational language. Scores on this last measure were lower for children for whom it was administered in Spanish. For both English and Spanish outcomes, those scores were significantly and uniquely associated with higher scores on measures of phonological awareness and math skills but not vocabulary or print knowledge skills.

Visuomotor integration and inhibitory control compensate for each other in school readiness.

Visuomotor integration (VMI), or the ability to copy designs, and 2 measures of executive function were examined in a predominantly low-income, typically developing sample of children (n = 467, mean age 4.2 years) from 5 U.S. states. In regression models controlling for age and demographic variables, we tested the interaction between visuomotor integration (design copying) and inhibitory control (pencil-tap) or verbal working memory (digit span) on 4 directly assessed academic skills and teacher-reported approaches to learning. Compared with children with both poor visuomotor integration and low inhibitory control, those on the higher end of the continuum in at least 1 of these 2 skills performed better across several dependent variables. This compensatory pattern was evident for longitudinal improvement in print knowledge on the Test of Preschool Early Literacy (TOPEL), with similar though marginally significant findings for improvement in phonological awareness (TOPEL) and teacher-rated approaches to learning on the Preschool Learning Behaviors Scale (PLBS). Of note, the same compensatory pattern emerged for concurrently measured receptive vocabulary on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), expressive vocabulary on the Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ), TOPEL phonological awareness, and teacher-rated approaches to learning. The consistent pattern of results suggests that strong visuomotor integration skills are an important part of school readiness, and merit further study.

Print knowledge in Yucatec Maya–Spanish bilingual children: an initial inquiry

ABSTRACTThis study serves as an initial inquiry regarding the early print knowledge of emergent bilingual preschool-age children living in an Indigenous community in Mexico. In this research, we examine various dimensions of print knowledge with Yucatec Maya–Spanish bilingual children for whom one of their languages (Yucatec Maya) is seldom seen in print forms in mainstream classrooms and curricula. A total of 84 emergent bilingual children were assessed in their Yucatec Maya and Spanish on measures of alphabet knowledge (i.e. letter names and sounds), name writing, and concepts of print. Results were analyzed and compared between languages, showing that the children demonstrated modest levels of print knowledge on all measures. Whereas the emergent bilingual children in this study performed significantly better in Spanish than Yucatec Maya on all indices of print knowledge, this investigation provides insights into how these children may concurrently develop print-related skills in interrelated ways across languages. Implications of these findings are outlined.

Relations between early reading and writing skills among Spanish-speaking language minority children

Although there is a growing body of literature on the development of reading skills of Spanish-speaking language minority children, little research has focused on the development of writing skills in this population. This study evaluated whether children’s Spanish early reading skills (i.e., print knowledge, phonological awareness, oral language) were related to their Spanish and English early writing skills using a sample of 554 children whose home language was Spanish. Multivariate regression analyses with simultaneous outcomes (Spanish and English invented spelling skills) were conducted to evaluate whether children’s early reading and writing skills were related across languages. Results indicated that children’s print knowledge and phonological awareness skills, but not oral language skills, were significantly related to their Spanish and English invented spelling skills. Spanish early literacy skills were not differentially related to Spanish and English reading and writing skills. The magnitude of the relations between print knowledge and oral language skills and children’s invented spelling skills varied as a function of child age; however, the magnitude of the relation between phonological awareness and invented spelling skills did not differ as a function of child age. Furthermore, results suggested that language minority children’s early reading and writing skills are related but distinct constructs and that children may be able to apply information gained from learning to read and write in their first language when learning to write in their second language.

The Impacts of a Scalable Intervention on the Language and Literacy Development of Rural Pre-Kindergartners

Read It Again (RIA) is a curriculum for pre-kindergarten (pre-K) classrooms that targets children's development of language and literacy skills. A cluster randomized trial was conducted in which 104 pre-K classrooms in the Appalachian region of the United States were randomly assigned to one of three study conditions: Control (n = 30), RIA only (n = 35), or RIA with expanded professional development components (n = 39). This study tested the impacts of RIA on six measures of children's (n = 506) language and literacy development. There was a significant positive impact of RIA on print concepts, and the impacts of RIA on print knowledge and alphabet knowledge were significantly stronger in classrooms with lower-quality literacy instruction. There were no impacts of RIA on children's language development and no impacts of the professional development components. Implications of the findings for implementing scalable, effective strategies to improve key school readiness outcomes for children from economically-disadvantaged backgrounds are discussed.

Impacts of parent-implemented early-literacy intervention for Spanish-speaking children with language impairment.

Children with language impairment (LI) often have lags in development of print knowledge, an important early-literacy skill. This study explores impacts of a print-focused intervention for Spanish-speaking children with LI in Southeastern Mexico. Aims were twofold. First, we sought to describe the print knowledge (print-concept knowledge, alphabet knowledge) of Spanish-speaking children with LI. Second, we determined the extent to which print-referencing intervention delivered by children's parents could improve print knowledge. Using a pre-test-post-test delayed treatment research design, 13 parent-child dyads were assigned to an intervention (n = 8) versus control (n = 5) condition. Children were drawn from a speech-language clinic and all were receiving services for LI. Caregivers in the intervention group implemented an 8-week home-reading programme following a systematic scope and sequence for improving children's print knowledge. Children showed individual differences in their print knowledge based on three baseline measures examining print-concept knowledge, alphabet knowledge and letter-sound knowledge. Those whose caregivers implemented the 8-week programme showed statistically and practically significant gains on two of the three measures over the intervention period. The results presented here may stimulate future research on the print knowledge of Spanish-speaking children with LI. Sources of individual differences are important to determine. Caregivers may use the intervention presented here as a potential avenue for improving children's print knowledge.

Leserelevante Kompetenzen an der Schwelle vom Kindergarten zur Schule

While formal reading instruction only starts at school, the acquisition of competencies relevant to reading has its origins in early childhood. According to the model used in the project »Wortschatz und Wortlesen. Aneignung im fruhen Schulalter« (WuW), early reading competence is based on three pillars: print knowledge, orally acquired linguistic competencies, and precursor abilities. The present article discusses results regarding competencies relevant to reading at the point of school entry, based on the data of 137 Swiss children with Swiss German as their fi rst language. Our aim is to examine the thesis that besides the empirically proven impact of phonological awareness and letter knowledge other dimensions need to be considered in order to do justice the complexity of early reading. Results show that in a synchronic perspective, there is only a weak correlation between vocabulary breadth as well as depth and word reading. Print knowledge and the metalinguistic competence of word awareness, in contrast, seem to be signifi cant factors.

Early Numeracy and Literacy: Untangling the Relation Between Specific Components

Although it is evident that advanced aspects of numeracy are dependent on the successful acquisition of early skills, this developmental process does not occur in isolation from other academic factors. Early literacy skills are intertwined with the acquisition of early numeracy skills, particularly at the informal numeracy and numeral knowledge phases. However, the localization of these domains’ impact in early numeracy development is unclear. To address this issue, 180 preschool children 3.13 to 5.88 years (51.1% female, 66.7% Caucasian, 14.4% African-American, 4.4% Hispanic, 14.4% other race/ethnicity) were assessed on measures of print knowledge, vocabulary, informal numeracy, and numeral knowledge. Results indicated that the relation between language and numeral knowledge is fully mediated by informal numeracy skills and the relation between informal numeracy skills and numeral knowledge skills is partially mediated by print knowledge. Explanations of the findings, implications for mathematics education, and future directions are discussed.

Relating prekindergarten teacher beliefs and knowledge to children's language and literacy development

The current study examines the associations between teachers' beliefs and knowledge and children's learning during the prekindergarten year. This study describes the degree to which 262 prekindergarten teachers' beliefs and knowledge regarding children's language and literacy skills are related to learning over the prekindergarten year. Teacher beliefs were not predictive of children's skill development. However, teachers' knowledge of language positively predicted children's gains in expressive vocabulary skills. In addition, teachers' knowledge of literacy predicted children's gains in print knowledge. Understanding these associations is important as the field continues to develop mechanisms for evaluating and training early childhood educators.

Examining the effects of adapted peer tutoring on social and language skills of young English language learners

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of adapted peer tutoring (APT) on social interactions and early language and literacy skills of pre-school-age children who were English language learners (ELLs). APT was the treatment for this study. Quasi-experimental group comparison design was applied. Two inclusive pre-school classrooms were randomly assigned as the experimental group and two other classrooms were assigned as the comparison group. A total of 75 children participated in this study. The ELLs from the experimental group demonstrated significant improvement than their peers from the comparison group in positive social interaction behaviour, receptive language, and print knowledge. The total effect indicated that children's social interaction behaviour moderately mediated the APT effectiveness on language acquisition.

Print-Focused Read-Alouds in Early Childhood Special Education Programs

The purpose of this study was to examine the impacts of print-focused read-alouds, implemented by early childhood special education (ECSE) teachers alone or in conjunction with caregivers, on the print knowledge of children with language impairment (LI). Using random assignment to conditions, children with LI were exposed, over an academic year of preschool, to one of three conditions specifying the way in which teachers and caregivers were to read storybooks with them. Based on a print-knowledge composite, children whose teachers used print-focused read-alouds had significantly better print knowledge ( d = .21) in spring of the year compared to children whose teachers used their typical reading practices. When teachers and caregivers implemented print-focused read-alouds simultaneously, children’s Spring print knowledge was modestly higher ( d = .11) than that of children whose teachers and parents used their typical reading practices, but the effect was not statistically significant. Examination of intervention moderators showed that children with lower levels of nonverbal cognition benefited substantially from exposure to the intervention. Educational implications are discussed.

Genetic and environmental etiologies of the longitudinal relations between prereading skills and reading.

The present study explored the environmental and genetic etiologies of the longitudinal relations between prereading skills and reading and spelling. Twin pairs (n = 489) were assessed before kindergarten (M = 4.9 years), post-first grade (M = 7.4 years), and post-fourth grade (M = 10.4 years). Genetic influences on five prereading skills (print knowledge, rapid naming, phonological awareness, vocabulary, and verbal memory) were primarily responsible for relations with word reading and spelling. However, relations with post-fourth-grade reading comprehension were due to both genetic and shared environmental influences. Genetic and shared environmental influences that were common among the prereading variables covaried with reading and spelling, as did genetic influences unique to verbal memory (only post-fourth-grade comprehension), print knowledge, and rapid naming.

Print Knowledge of Preschool Children With Hearing Loss

Measures of print knowledge were compared across preschoolers with hearing loss and normal hearing. Alphabet knowledge did not differ between groups, but preschoolers with hearing loss performed lower on measures of print concepts and concepts of written words than preschoolers with normal hearing. Further study is needed in this area.

Structured narrative retell instruction for young children from low socioeconomic backgrounds: a preliminary study of feasibility.

Successful acquisition of literacy depends on adequate development of decoding skills as well as broader, meaning-related knowledge and skills for text comprehension. Children from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds are often challenged in both domains, relative to peers who are not economically disadvantaged. The efficacy of code-focused instructional programs for at-risk preliterate children is well supported, but less evidence is available regarding interventions to improve broader language and comprehension skills. This preliminary study tested the feasibility of a new intervention, “structured narrative retell instruction” (SNRI), and explored its potential to enhance meaning-related knowledge and skills, including vocabulary, listening comprehension, and narrative skills, in pre-literate, low SES children. SNRI used authentic children's books to model comprehension processes, explicitly teach story grammar, and implicitly target microstructural aspects of narratives. Participants included 9 children with a mean age of 60 months, who were randomly assigned to SNRI or to code-focused literacy instruction (CFLI). Each group received 12, 40-min instructional sessions over 6 weeks. Pre- and post-tests were administered to assess vocabulary, listening comprehension, narrative macrostructure and narrative microstructure, as well as alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness, and concepts of print. The feasibility of SNRI was demonstrated by completion of the designed study, moderately high treatment fidelity, and qualitative feedback from interventionists. The SNRI group also made significant gains on 4 of the 7 meaning-related measures (p < 0.10). In comparison, the CFLI group made significant gains on 2 of 7 meaning-related measures. We conclude that SNRI is feasible and shows potential for improving language skills related to comprehension and that further research investigating its efficacy is warranted.

Experimental Evaluation of the Value Added by Raising a Reader and Supplemental Parent Training in Shared Reading

Research Findings: In an effort toward developing a comprehensive, effective, scalable, and sustainable early childhood education program for at-risk populations, we conducted an experimental evaluation of the value added by 2 family involvement programs to the Texas Early Education Model (TEEM). A total of 91 preschool classrooms that served minority populations of low socioeconomic status were randomly assigned to TEEM, TEEM plus Raising a Reader (RAR), or TEEM plus RAR augmented by Family Nights. Assessments of oral language and print knowledge were completed by more than 500 children at the beginning and end of the school year. Multilevel analyses of covariance controlled for classroom nesting and individual differences in age, ethnicity, and pretest scores. Although RAR alone demonstrated no added value, augmentation of RAR with Family Nights demonstrated significant impacts on measures of oral language (ts = 1.81–2.51, .05 < ps < .01) and print knowledge (t = 2.39, p < .01). Practice or Policy: Thus, parent training in shared reading practices appears to be necessary for children to benefit from programs that enrich the home literacy environment. That the combined program particularly benefited children who started preschool lagging behind in school readiness (ts = 1.64–2.49, ps < .05) suggests that this comprehensive model offers hope for closing the achievement gap.

Using environmental print to foster emergent literacy in children from a low-SES community

Young children are exposed to environmental print within their communities and this print may be a useful resource to foster emergent literacy skills. This pre-post-test randomised controlled study examined the effects of using environmental print to enhance emergent literacy skills in children aged three to four years (N=50) from a low-SES community in south-east Queensland, Australia. The 8-week (30min/week) environmental print programme provided multisensory strategies for children to interact with environmental print by identifying letters and words, tracing letters with fingers, and writing letters. ANCOVAs were conducted with pre-test scores as covariates. Children in the environmental print group significantly out-performed the control group on print knowledge, sound knowledge, and print awareness skills. The programme had moderate to large effects sizes and showed that guiding low-SES preschoolers’ interactions with environmental print using multisensory strategies is an effective way to foster emergent literacy skills.