Knowledge Of Correct Response Research Articles

How to Make Computer-Based Feedback More Productive: The Power of Erroneous Solutions

This research aims to expand our understanding of how to facilitate student feedback engagement processes in a computer-based formative assessment environment. In the present research, we designed a new type of elaborated feedback in terms of combining the correct solution and the erroneous solution, and the erroneous solution matched the student’s initial answer. Furthermore, we analyzed whether this feedback had a stronger positive effect than the other three types of feedback containing different complexities of correct information (i.e., Knowledge of Correct Response, Problem-Solving Cues, or Complete Correct Solutions). As predicted, students who received correct and erroneous solutions experienced more positive feedback perceptions, perceived lower extraneous cognitive load and higher germane cognitive load, and achieved higher transfer performance. This research is one of the first that provides empirical evidence for the positive impact of incorporating students’ errors into the feedback design, and this novel insight can extend current theories on how to optimize feedback design to promote students’ active processing and use of feedback.

Learning and Motivation When Using Multiple-Try in a Digital Game for Primary Students in Chile

The number of attempts to provide students is a key instructional characteristic in computer-based learning (CBL). However, it has not been covered extensively, and there is a need to delve deeper into the factors affecting multiple-try performance and allowing its successful use, including the learner’s involved emotional processes. This study examines the effects of multiple-try on a drill-and-practice mathematical game devoted to primary school students. A total of 73 students from four courses from two schools participated in the experiment. They were randomly assigned to a 3-attempt multiple-try (MTF) and a single-try knowledge of correct response (KCR) conditions. The study covered impacts on learning performance, together with motivation, effort, pressure, and the value of students regarding the learning activity based on the self-determination theory (SDT) perspective and its cognitive evaluation sub-theory (CET). The study’s main findings were that (a) the MTF condition outperformed KCR in terms of students’ learning gains; (b) MTF presented higher levels of perceived competence and autonomy, which, according to SDT, fosters motivation and learning; (c) a cost was yielded in students’ perceived pressure under MTF; and (d) perceived effort and value was similarly high for both conditions despite learning differences. This study complements the existing literature on multiple-try, providing insights into what conditions are beneficial for multiple-try use.

Computer-based performance feedback: Effects of error message complexity on cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational outcomes

In computer-based assessments, immediate performance feedback on incorrect responses may have major cognitive and metacognitive benefits but it may also be demotivating for students by mirroring task-related failure. This experiment investigated the impact of three different error clarification types. We systematically varied the presence and complexity of immediate error messages (1 × 4 between-subjects design) and analyzed the effects of feedback with different levels of error clarification complexity on students' cognition, metacognition, and motivational state. Our sample included 439 university students who worked on 12 computer-based constructed-response geometry tasks. The students received either no feedback or feedback with different error message complexities after incorrect responses (i.e., Knowledge of Results [KR], Knowledge of Correct Response [KCR], or Elaborated Feedback [EF]) paired with confirmatory KCR feedback after correct responses. All feedback types, namely KR, KCR, and EF, significantly enhanced error correction and equally fostered students' metacognitive calibration accuracy. Moreover, error correction increased with the time students' spent on the error-related feedback (even for simple KR messages), which suggests that students actively used the additional time to reflect on their mistakes. Nevertheless, KCR and EF increased error correction more effectively than KR. Students' motivational state after correct responses did not significantly differ after receiving feedback compared to no feedback. After incorrect responses, we found a negative effect on students’ motivational state for KR feedback. This detrimental effect was in contrast to EF, which mitigated the negative effect compared to KR feedback and showed a similar motivational state level as the KCR and no feedback group.

Affective-motivational effects of performance feedback in computer-based assessment: Does error message complexity matter?

The impact of computer-based performance feedback on students’ affective-motivational state may be very different, depending on the positive or negative direction of the feedback message and its specific content. This experiment investigated whether more elaborated error messages improve students’ affective-motivational response to negative (i.e., corrective) feedback. We systematically varied the presence and complexity of corrective feedback messages (1 × 4 between-subjects design) and analyzed the effects of the provided feedback on students’ emotions, task-related perceived usefulness, and expectancy-value beliefs. University students (N = 439) worked on a low-stakes test with 12 constructed-response geometry tasks. They received either no feedback or different complexities of immediate corrective feedback after incorrect responses (i.e., Knowledge of Results [KR], Knowledge of Correct Response [KCR], or Elaborated Feedback [EF]), paired with immediate confirmatory KCR feedback after correct responses (i.e., confirming their response). Our data showed that students’ task-level performance moderated the emotional impact of feedback (i.e., beneficial effects after correct responses; detrimental effects after incorrect responses). Students’ performance further moderated several feedback effects on students’ expectancy-value beliefs. Regarding error message complexity, we found that students reported higher levels of positive emotions after receiving EF or KCR compared to KR, while only EF decreased students' level of negative emotions compared to KR and increased students' task-related perceived usefulness compared to all other groups. Overall, our results suggest that performance feedback is likely to improve students’ affective-motivational state when the feedback confirms a correct response. Moreover, when reporting an error, EF (or KCR messages) were more beneficial to affective-motivational outcomes than simple KR notifications.

EFL Learners Interaction with Feedback Presented through a Computer-Assisted Reading Program

This article examines the interaction patterns of second language (L2) learners when engaging with different types of feedback presented through a computer reading program. There were 12 EFL learners who were asked to complete reading exercises in the program, and the way they interacted with the feedback provided was examined through interviews, observations and think-aloud exercises. The qualitative analyses explored participants' experience of the reading feedback and how EFL learners of different language levels behaved when presented with knowledge of correct response (KCR), elaborated feedback (EF), and no feedback. The results showed limited use of the EF, and most students relied on KCR to guide their reading. In addition, many of the participants commented on the complexity of the EF, which presented as a barrier to facilitating reading comprehension. From the interviews, it was discovered that feedback could negatively influence the reading experience for low-level learners as the feedback was not accessible enough to help in the reading comprehension process.

Effectiveness of Type of Feedback and Frequency on Digital Game-Based L2 Vocabulary Acquisition

The frequency of word exposure in teaching materials, along with corrective feedback, has often been identified as a powerful variable in the learning of vocabulary in a foreign language. The effect of the number of times an action is presented as accurate in digital game-based language learning scenarios (i.e., knowledge of correct response [KCR] feedback) however remains under-investigated. This study aims to analyse the learning of L2 mobile operating system terminology by a group of students of English as a foreign language by using the data collected by the video game The Conference Interpreter in order to identify the predictive strength of term frequency (times a term is shown), KCR feedback (times a correct answer is provided), and corrective feedback (times a term is shown as incorrect) regarding short and long-term L2 vocabulary learning. The regression analysis performed showed that the factor ‘KCR feedback' may be a positive predictor of short-term vocabulary learning, whereas the other factors seemed to have no statistical effect at any significant level.

¿Influye la Retroalimentación Correctiva en el Uso de la Retroalimentación Elaborada en un Entorno Digital?

Digital environments are able to provide corrective feedback such as knowledge of response (KR: correct/incorrect) or knowledge of correct response (KCR: the correct answer is X), along with elaborated feedback (EF: explanations). It is common to assume that students process EF, although recent research shows that this is not always the case, probably because of the corrective feedback provided along with EF. The main goal of this study is to analyze the voluntary decision to access EF depending on KR and KCR feedback received immediately after answering questions from a science text. Secondary students received corrective feedback according to the condition assigned: KR, KCR, or control (i.e., non-corrective feedback). Afterwards, all the students could access EF, that included an explanation about the knowledge assessed. Results suggest that receiving KR and KCR feedback decreases the use of EF compared to control feedback, although there are no differences in the final learning.

Effects of feedback elaboration and feedback timing during computer-based practice in mathematics problem solving

This study investigated the effects of feedback on performance with pairs of isomorphic items that were embedded within consecutive mathematics web-based practice tests. Participants were randomly assigned to different experimental testing conditions: (1) feedback type: knowledge of correct response (KCR) or KCR with elaborated feedback (EF) in the form of additional explanations of the correct answer, (2) feedback timing: immediately after answering each item or delayed after completing the practice test, and (3) item format: multiple-choice or constructed response. The study specifically investigated the likelihood that participants would correctly answer the second version of the item, conditioned on their answer to the first version, across feedback type and timing conditions, and taking into account item format and participant initial ability. Results from 2445 participants showed a different pattern of results depending on initial item response correctness. With respect to feedback type, EF resulted in higher performance than KCR following incorrect first responses (suggesting initial lack of knowledge and understanding), but not following correct first responses. With respect to feedback timing, immediate feedback with additional delayed review resulted in higher performance than delayed feedback following incorrect first responses, but resulted in lower performance following correct first responses (immediate feedback without delayed review resulted in lower performance in both cases).

Promoting science learning in game-based learning with question prompts and feedback

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the types of question prompts (Knowledge vs. Application Prompts) and feedback types (Knowledge of Correct Response (KCR) vs. Elaborated Response (ER) on science learning outcomes in a game-based learning environment. One hundred and five students from a secondary school in Taiwan were randomly assigned into four conditions: Knowledge-KCR, Knowledge-ER, Application-KCR, and Application-ER in a game-based learning environment to learn the concepts of force and motion. The results suggested that students with the knowledge prompts outperformed students with application prompts. In addition, we found that the types of question prompts and the types of feedback had an interaction effect on students' learning. Specifically, students with ER feedback performed better than those with KCR feedback when knowledge prompts were given; however, students with KCR feedback performed better than those with ER feedback when application prompts were given.

When Easy Becomes Boring and Difficult Becomes Frustrating: Disentangling the Effects of Item Difficulty Level and Person Proficiency on Learning and Motivation

The research on electronic learning environments has evolved towards creating adaptive learning environments. In this study, the focus is on adaptive curriculum sequencing, in particular, the efficacy of an adaptive curriculum sequencing algorithm based on matching the item difficulty level to the learner’s proficiency level. We therefore explored the effect of the relative difficulty level on learning outcome and motivation. Results indicate that, for learning environments consisting of questions focusing on just one dimension and with knowledge of correct response, it does not matter whether we present easy, moderate or difficult items or whether we present the items with a random mix of difficulty levels, regarding both learning and motivation.

Effectiveness of virtual reality-based instruction on students' learning outcomes in K-12 and higher education: A meta-analysis

The purpose of this meta-analysis is to examine overall effect as well as the impact of selected instructional design principles in the context of virtual reality technology-based instruction (i.e. games, simulation, virtual worlds) in K-12 or higher education settings. A total of 13 studies (N = 3081) in the category of games, 29 studies (N = 2553) in the category of games, and 27 studies (N = 2798) in the category of virtual worlds were meta-analyzed. The key inclusion criteria were that the study came from K-12 or higher education settings, used experimental or quasi-experimental research designs, and used a learning outcome measure to evaluate the effects of the virtual reality-based instruction.Results suggest games (FEM = 0.77; REM = 0.51), simulations (FEM = 0.38; REM = 0.41), and virtual worlds (FEM = 0.36; REM = 0.41) were effective in improving learning outcome gains. The homogeneity analysis of the effect sizes was statistically significant, indicating that the studies were different from each other. Therefore, we conducted moderator analysis using 13 variables used to code the studies. Key findings included that: games show higher learning gains than simulations and virtual worlds. For simulation studies, elaborate explanation type feedback is more suitable for declarative tasks whereas knowledge of correct response is more appropriate for procedural tasks. Students performance is enhanced when they conduct the game play individually than in a group. In addition, we found an inverse relationship between number of treatment sessions learning gains for games.With regards to the virtual world, we found that if students were repeatedly measured it deteriorates their learning outcome gains. We discuss results to highlight the importance of considering instructional design principles when designing virtual reality-based instruction.

Effects of feedback in a computer-based assessment for learning

The effects of written feedback in a computer-based assessment for learning on students' learning outcomes were investigated in an experiment at a Higher Education institute in the Netherlands. Students were randomly assigned to three groups, and were subjected to an assessment for learning with different kinds of feedback. These are immediate knowledge of correct response (KCR) + elaborated feedback (EF), delayed KCR + EF, and delayed knowledge of results (KR). A summative assessment was used as a post-test. No significant effect was found for the feedback condition on student achievement on the post-test. Results suggest that students paid more attention to immediate than to delayed feedback. Furthermore, the time spent reading feedback was positively influenced by students' attitude and motivation. Students perceived immediate KCR + EF feedback to be more useful for learning than KR. Students also had a more positive attitude towards feedback in a CBA when they received KCR + EF rather than KR only.

The effectiveness of methods for providing written feedback through a computer-based assessment for learning: a systematic review

This study reviews literature regarding the effectiveness of different methods for providing written feedback through a computer-based assessment for learning. In analysing the results, a distinction is made between lower-order and higherorder learning. What little high-quality research is available suggests that students could benefit from knowledge of correct response (KCR) to obtain lower-order learning outcomes. As well, elaborated feedback (EF) seems beneficial for gaining both lower-order and higher-order learning outcomes. Furthermore, this study shows that a number of variables should be taken into account when investigating the effects of feedback on learning outcomes. Implications for future research are discussed.

Web-based collaborative reading exercises for learners in remote locations: the effects of computer-mediated feedback and interaction via computer-mediated communication

AbstractDespite the fact that the benefits of pair and group work for those espousing an interactionist view of second language learning are well documented (Lightbown & Spada, 1999; Long, 1981; Pica, 1994, 1996; Van Lier, 1996), learning environments exist in which students have no option but to study alone. Of particular interest for this research are learners who, despite studying in contexts supportive of collaborative interaction in the classroom, have little opportunity to interact with partners when trying to participate in collaborative reading comprehension exercises outside school. In an attempt to find a solution to this potentially inhibiting learning context, this research comprises an investigation into (a) whether the introduction of computer-mediated Elaborative feedback before Knowledge of Correct Response (KCR) feedback better promotes quality interaction and comprehension of a web-based reading text and (b) whether computer-mediated communication (CMC) offers a suitable means for generating quality interaction between peers in remote locations. While completing a web-based multiple-choice reading comprehension exercise, students worked in pairs and received either KCR feedback only, or Elaborative feedback before KCR feedback. In contrast to KCR feedback which simply comprises the correct answers, Elaborative feedback was produced in the form of hints to foster interaction and to support dyads in their attempts at self-correcting any incorrect answers. Using a multiple-try methodology, hints became increasingly specific for questions repeatedly answered incorrectly. Upon completing a follow-up comprehension exercise alone, all students were provided with KCR feedback only. Results from a quantitative analysis of the comprehension scores indicate that students who were provided with Elaborative feedback subsequently scored significantly higher on the follow-up exercise. Furthermore, results from a qualitative analysis of interactions suggest that CMC is a suitable way of generating quality interaction between students, particularly when Elaborative feedback is included.

Dynamic task selection: Effects of feedback and learner control on efficiency and motivation

Structural features of learning tasks are relevant for problem solving but not salient for novice learners. Feedback in the form of Knowledge of Correct Response (KCR) during practice is expected to help learners recognize the structural features and to profit from learner control over the selection of learning tasks. A 2 × 2 factorial experiment ( N = 118) was conducted to study the effects of the KCR feedback (present and absent) and control over the selection of learning tasks (learner control and program control). The presence of the KCR feedback yielded higher efficiency on a near-transfer test as well as higher learner motivation. An interaction between feedback and control, indicating extra beneficial effects of feedback when learners control the selection of learning tasks, was not found. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Coherence and correspondence criteria for rationality: experts' estimation of risks of sexually transmitted infections

The aim of this study is to examine both coherence and correspondence criteria for rationality in experts' judgments of risk. We investigated biases in risk estimation for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) predicted by fuzzy-trace theory, i.e., that specific errors would occur despite experts' knowledge of correct responses. One hundred twenty professionals with specific knowledge of STI risks in adolescents were administered a survey questionnaire to test predictions concerning: knowledge deficits (producing underestimation of risks); gist-based representation of risk categories (producing overestimation of condom effectiveness); retrieval failure for risk knowledge (producing lower risk estimates); and processing interference in combining risk estimates (producing biases in post-test diagnosis of infection). Retrieval was manipulated by asking estimation questions that “unpacked” the STI category into infection types or did not specify infection types. Other questions differentiated processing biases from knowledge deficits or retrieval failure by directly providing requisite knowledge. Experts' knowledge of STI transmission and infection risks was verified empirically. Nevertheless, under predictable conditions, they misestimated risk, overestimated the effectiveness of condoms, and also suffered from processing biases. When questions provided better retrieval supports (unpacked format), risk estimates improved. Biases were linked to gist representations, retrieval failures, and processing errors, as opposed to knowledge about STIs. Results support fuzzy-trace theory's dual-process assumptions that different types of errors are dissociated from one another, and separate failures of coherence and correspondence among the same sample of experts. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Effects of Feedback and Incentives on Achievement in Computer-Based Instruction

The effects on learning of three feedback strategies (Answer Until Correct, Knowledge of Correct Response, and Delayed) were compared to two control strategies (No feedback and No questions) under two conditions of incentives. Task incentives rewarded subjects for successful task completion regardless of level of achievement while performance incentives based subjects′ actual grades on level of achievement. Results showed an overall effect favoring performance incentives across all levels of learning and feedback conditions. KCR and Delayed feedback strategies were advantageous for lower-level learning only, that is where post-test questions were similar to original practice questions. AUC feedback, however, was not effective on any learning measure. Results are interpreted with regard to the interaction of feedback form and learner dispositions to process feedback information "mindfully" rather than in a surface manner.

The effects of different feedback strategies using computer-administered multiple-choice questions as instruction

This study investigated the effects of using different forms of computer-based feedback on high school students' learning of science material. The basic design consisted of two conditions of instructional support (text and questions vs. questions only), two testings (immediate vs. retention), five levels of similarity between lesson and posttest questions, and five feedback conditions: knowledge of correct response (KCR), delayed KCR, answer until correct (AUC), questions only (no feedback), and no questions. Results showed significant benefits for feedback over no feedback, with AUC becoming more advantageous and delayed feedback less so as lesson-posttest question similarity decreased. Also, with decreased question similarity and the availability of supporting text, overall feedback effects tended to decrease. The results are discussed in terms of the information processing effects of the different feedback forms, a factor that CBI designers often fail to exploit in planning feedback conditions.

Feedback Procedures in Computer-Assisted Instruction

AbstractThe relative effectiveness of six different feedback conditions in computer-assisted instruction was investigated. Ninety high school freshmen and sophomore algebra students were randomly blocked into six groups according to a mathematics achievement test. Each group completed a CAI program designed to teach an algorithm for solving algebraic equations of one variable, with each group receiving one of the following feedback conditions after errors: a) knowledge-of-correct-response (KCR), immediate question review (IQR); b) KCR, next question (NQ); c) KCR, process explanation (PsE), IQR; d) KCR, PsE, NQ; e) knowledge-of-results (KR), IQR; or, f) KR, PsE, IQR. The findings replicated earlier research in showing the benefit of KCR over KR, but KR with PsE was as effective as KCR in correcting errors. KR, IQR (“Wrong. Try Again.”) was the least effective feedback procedure. Combining PsE with KCR did not produce an additive effect. Implications for educational research and practice are discussed.

EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK ON THE VIGILANCE TASK PERFORMANCE OF HYPERACTIVE AND HYPOACTIVE CHILDREN

Hyperactive and hypoactive children show attentional deficits. An effort was made to modify their approaches to a vigilance task by varying the feedback received for correct detections and false alarms. It was expected that hyperactive children would do better when receiving knowledge of false alarms; hypoactive children would do better when receiving knowledge of correct responses. 20 hyperactive and 20 hypoactive children, aged 6 to 10 yr., were each tested under three conditions with a vigilance task: (a) feedback for correct responses (KR+), (b) feedback for false alarms (KR-), (c) no feedback NKR). Feedback was given by a tone. For the total error score, hyperactive subjects committed more errors than hypoactive ones under KR+ and fewer errors under KR-. Hypoactive children committed fewer errors under KR+ than no knowledge. Partial support for the hypothesis was obtained. Hyperactive children generally to better when given knowledge of errors; they become more cautious in responding. Hypoactive children do best when given information regarding correct responses; they become less inhibited in responding.