Knowledge Embeddedness Research Articles

Modes de connaissance et de devenir : apprendre ensemble dans un cours de cycle supérieur sur l’interdisciplinarité

Developing as a scholar is a critical aspect of graduate school. In this article, we use an autoethnographic approach to explore our experiences in a newly redeveloped interdisciplinary graduate course. The course was designed to emphasize interdisciplinary scholarship and to encourage students’ awareness of their own developing epistemological, ontological, and axiological commitments. In this paper, we identify themes that arose from the final class paper, in which the students/researchers reflected on our development as emerging scholars. Through this course we developed an understanding of the value of interdisciplinarity, the cultural embeddedness of knowledge, and our own responsibilities as researchers in relation to social structures of power and marginalization. Our analyses of our experiences suggests that reflections on our own positionality and axiology are important for developing our identities as emerging scholars and that becoming a scholar may be more about the process than an end goal. We conclude with a discussion of how our learning in this course may be relevant for other instructors and emerging scholars.

Do emerging market multinational corporations headquarter-subsidiary relationships foster subsidiary innovation and performance in developed markets?

This study investigates sources of innovation and performance for emerging market multinational corporations (EMNCs). We develop a contingency framework that examines how internal administrative embeddedness (IAE) and internal knowledge embeddedness (IKE) shape EMNC overseas subsidiary innovation capabilities, and how these relationships are contingent on EMNC headquarter host country experience and subsidiary embeddedness with host-country business partners. Data were collected from a survey of 242 dyads composed of Chinese EMNC headquarters and overseas subsidiaries located in 30 developed countries. Secondary data were also collected for EMNC host country experience and subsidiary performance. The empirical results show that IAE negatively influences EMNC subsidiary innovation capability, and this negative relationship is stronger when subsidiary host-country embeddedness increases. The findings further reveal that IKE positively influences subsidiary innovation capability. This relationship becomes stronger as subsidiary host-country embeddedness and headquarter host country experience increase. We also find that subsidiary innovation capability mediates the relationship between HQ-subsidiary embeddedness and subsidiary performance. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.

Investigating the Impact of Dual Network Embedding and Dual Entrepreneurial Bricolage on Knowledge-Creation Performance: An Empirical Study in Fujian, China

Aim/Purpose: This study investigates the relationship between dual network embedding, dual entrepreneurial bricolage, and knowledge-creation performance. Background: The importance of new ventures for innovation and economic growth has been fully endorsed. Establishing incubation organizations to help new startups overcome constraints and dilemmas has become the consensus of various countries. In particular, the number of Chinese makerspaces has rapidly increased. Startups in the makerspaces form a loosely coupled dual network to cooperate and share resources, especially knowledge. Methodology: By convenience sampling, 400 startups in the makerspaces in Fujian Province, China were selected for the questionnaire survey study. In total, 307 valid responses were collected, yielding a response rate of 76.8%. The survey data were analyzed for hypothesis testing, using the PL-SEM technique with the AMOS20.0 software. Contribution: At the theoretical level, this research supplements the exploration of the influencing factors of the entrepreneurial bricolage of startups at the network level. It deepens the research on the internal mechanism of the dual network embeddedness affecting the knowledge-creation performance. In practice, it provides a theoretical basis and management inspiration for startups in makerspaces to overcome the inherent disadvantage of being too small and weak to explore innovative paths. Findings: First, relational embedding of startups in makerspaces directly affects knowledge-creation performance. Second, dual entrepreneurial bricolage plays a mediating role in diversity. Selective entrepreneurial bricolage plays a partial mediating role between relationship embedding and knowledge-creation performance. Parallel entrepreneurial bricolage plays a complete intermediary role between structural embedding and knowledge-creation performance. Dual entrepreneurial bricolage plays a complete intermediary role between knowledge embedding and knowledge-creation performance. Recommendations for Practitioners: Enterprises in the makerspaces should make dynamic adjustments to the network embedded state and dual entrepreneurial bricolage to improve knowledge-creation performance. When startups conduct selective entrepreneurship bricolage, they should strengthen relational and knowledge embeddedness to improve their relationship strength and tacit knowledge acquisition. When startups conduct parallel entrepreneurship bricolage, structural and knowledge embedding should be strengthened to improve the position of enterprises in the network to acquire diversified knowledge to explore and discover new business opportunities and project resources. Recommendation for Researchers: The heterogeneity of industries and regions may impact the dual network embedding mechanism of startups. Researchers can choose a wider range of regions and industries for sampling. Impact on Society: This study provides a theoretical basis and management inspiration for startups to overcome the inherent disadvantage of being too small and weak to explore innovative paths. It provides a basis to support startups in unleashing innovation vitality and achieving healthy growth. Future Research: Previous studies have shown that network relationships and bricolage behavior have a certain relationship with the enterprise life cycle. Future research can adopt a longitudinal research design across time points, which will increase the explanatory power of research conclusions.

MANAGING KNOWLEDGE EMBEDDEDNESS FOR SYNERGETIC INNOVATION PERFORMANCE IN STRATEGIC ALLIANCES: IMPLICATIONS FROM KNOWLEDGE FLOW AND STRATEGIC REACTIVENESS

Knowledge embeddedness may exert a crucial role in improving synergetic innovation performance in the knowledge economy era. However, theoretical deduction and empirical investigation on the effects of knowledge embeddedness have not yet reached a consensus. One primary reason caused this result is that the different levels of knowledge embeddedness for synergies have been neglected to examine. To provide evidence to develop strategies for improving synergetic innovation performance based on related knowledge by embedding knowledge, this paper used the 496-questionnaire data to investigate the impacts of knowledge embeddedness on synergetic innovation performance, the mediating effects of knowledge acquisition and knowledge leakage, and the moderating effect of strategic reactiveness. We found that knowledge embeddedness played an inverted U-shaped role in synergetic innovation performance in strategic alliances, whereas it had positive effects on knowledge acquisition and knowledge leakage. Two specific knowledge flow behaviours, knowledge acquisition and knowledge leakage exerted inverted U-shaped impacts on synergetic innovation performance. In addition, they had partial mediating effects between knowledge embeddedness and synergetic innovation performance. Moreover, strategic reactiveness positively moderated the relationship between knowledge embeddedness and synergetic innovation performance. Our results supplemented reliable empirical evidence to promote the development of embeddedness and knowledge management literature.

Reliability of Knowledge Service Provider Attributes to Achieve Innovation in Green Products: An Analytical Study

The current study aimed to measure the reliability of knowledge service provider attributes of (Knowledge Embeddedness, knowledge distance) to achieve the innovation in green products of (Green Design, Green Operations) with a sample of employees of Al-Aitihad Industrial Company in Babylon Governorate, which included the study sample of the companys two employees (131) employees, Therefore, the problem of the study was formulated on the extent to which the characteristics of the knowledge provider to achieve innovation in green products in the research company. In order to achieve the studys objectives and indicate its problem, a hypothetical scheme was built to clarify the correlation and impact relationships between the study variables, and to elaborate on the formulation of special hypotheses measured in the statistical package of the program. (AMOS.V.27), also used a set of statistical methods of confirmatory working analysis, Cronbachs-alpha coefficient, and determination coefficient (R2), natural distribution of data, and descriptive statistics of computational medium and standard deviation, The results of the study showed the industrial companys awareness of the importance of attention to knowledge service provider attributes and innovation in green products to improve the performance of its work and preserve the environment. In addition to the companys interest in following environmental guidelines to instruct customers to pay attention to the environment and control the devices and tools that preserve the environment, as well as encouraging customers to take responsibility for their actions.

A Network Dynamic of Experimental Learning Cycle for Early-Stage Project Success

Early-stage project success does not depend exclusively on network activities but on a dynamic that can switch cognitive structures to behave in ways consistent with the expectations of network needs. By using a quasi-field experiment, this study finds that two types of networks determine the relationship between network embeddedness and early-stage project success via two distinct mechanisms of the experimental learning cycle: Knowledge embeddedness in knowledge networks increases early-stage project success and this relationship is mediated by failure analysis of the experimental learning cycle; social embeddedness in social networks increases early-stage project success and this relationship is mediated by tolerance for failure of the experimental learning cycle. This study sketches out a simple network dynamic, “What–Who–How”, for early-stage project success and illuminates the idea of Learning by Networking.

Science Fiction as an Instructional Strategy: Foundations, Procedures, and Results for Pre-service Teachers.

Science fiction (SF) combines realistic and imaginary elements of science and technology and develops students’ imagination, creativity, and interest in science. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine SF stories written by pre-service science teachers (PSTs) in terms of various textual and science variables. The case study of SF story writing aimed to develop a theoretical framework to analyze how narrative elements, plot structure, agency, the nature of science content, characteristics of the SF genre, and ethics in scientific research are included in the stories of a group of Turkish PSTs. The participants of the study were 58 pre-service teachers enrolled in the science education department at a public university in Turkey. Working in groups, they wrote 13 different SF stories. The stories were analyzed with a rubric including two parts: narrative and other story elements and the characteristics of the SF genre. The results showed that the stories included fictional and realistic features of science and technology, scientific concepts, and details about scientific realities. The stories addressed the social and cultural embeddedness of scientific knowledge and details about the scientific method. However, the originality is limited in many stories as they had traces from popular movies, books, and TV series. The stories did consider a range of ethical issues, including unauthorized experimentation and manipulating scientific information for personal, political, and financial interests. The current study could contribute to the literature about the use and assessment of SF stories in science education.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10763-021-10244-4.

The internet as non-biomedical milieu: Production of alternative health techno-social spaces and the persistence of marginalised medical practices.

This paper describes how spatial understandings of the internet (i.e. the internet is a 'space') enable the persistence of marginalised medical practices. By tracing different accounts of the internet as space among practitioners and followers of diện chẩn - an emergent Vietnamese unregulated therapeutic method - we show how the logic of space circumscribes an alternative techno-social site for marginalised medical practices, transforms the private experience of being alone with technology into being-in-space, spiritualises the internet as a conduit of healing power, and mediates transnational health mobility among the Vietnamese diaspora. Drawing on interviews and ethnographic participation in Vietnam and the US, we demonstrate how the internet can be understood as non-biomedical milieu - a field of determination that conjoins heterogenous interventions on health-related eventualities outside of structured and institutionalised biomedical practices. This in vivo conceptualisation of the internet as space offers a point of convergence against the bifurcation of information as abstract and technology as concrete. A spatial conceptualisation highlights the embeddedness of health knowledge on the internet and shows how techno-social interrelations produce different spaces of multiplicity, which constitute a favourable milieu for medical practices outside of the biomedical institution to persist.

Following the paper trail: the UK scientific and technological knowledge space and its reliance on international knowledge spillovers

ABSTRACT Knowledge is an essential ingredient for economic development, growth and gaining a competitive advantage. In order to produce novel and valuable knowledge, it is advantageous, perhaps vital, to rely on insights gained from prior research efforts. Those knowledge spillovers (KS) provide the rationale for sustained economic growth and produce unique place-based knowledge spaces. Due to the spatial embeddedness and stickiness of knowledge, most investigations mainly pay attention to the localized nature of KS, but what about those spillovers from other jurisdictions, or perhaps even from across the globe? To analyse the role played by international KS, the present study investigates to what extent international KS shape the evolution of the UK science and technology space. The first step involves creating knowledge spaces following the methodology outlined by Kogler et al. (2013; 2017) for the period 2006–15. Subsequently, we are following the paper trail of publications and patents developed by UK authors and inventors to depict to what degree international KS in specific science and technology domains have contributed to the production of novel knowledge in the UK. The results indicate that four out of five citations made in publications and patents in the UK are the works of authors and inventors residing elsewhere. This has important policy implications considering recent tendencies to curtail trade and the free movement of labour, all of which contribute to the diffusion of knowledge.

Popüler Bilim Kitapları Etkili Bir Öğretim Aracı Olarak Kullanılabilir Mi?

The purpose of this research is to investigate the four popular science books (Billions and Billions, Remarkable Discoveries!, The Two Cultures, and The Chase of the Golden Meteor) pressed by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) in terms of the determined nature of science (NOS) aspects (Experimental nature of the scientific knowledge, Cultural and social embeddedness in scientific knowledge, The tentativeness of scientific knowledge, and Creativity in scientific knowledge). At the end of the investigation, it was assessed whether these books can be used as an effective teaching tool in terms of the NOS or not. Qualitative paradigm dominated this research and document analysis was used as a method. In this context, researchers made a content analysis of these four books involved in this research according to determined four NOS aspects (tentativeness of scientific knowledge, empirical nature of scientific knowledge, the social and cultural embeddedness of scientific knowledge, and the creativity in scientific knowledge). The researchers analyzed independently the book Billions and Billions for interrater reliability, calculated Kappa scores, and consensus settled. After that one researcher continued the content analysis process for other books. According to research results, the books named Billions and Billions and especially Remarkable Discoveries presents a richer content for the determined NOS aspects than, Two Cultures and The Chase of the Golden Meteor. The topics covered by popular science resources and the place and importance of this content in education, its availability, its writing style and usability were discussed.

Reviving the Liability of Foreignness: Liability of Foreignness Research in the Semi-Globalized Era

The liability of foreignness is that foreign multinationals pay higher costs of doing business abroad than to domestic firms due to their lack of social embeddedness and lack of institutional knowledge; this has been one of the most important research topics in international business and has drawn a great deal of scholarly attention because of its theoretical and practical implications for multinational enterprises operating in foreign host markets. Even though the liability of foreignness has been one of the most fundamental theoretical pillars in international business, it is also true that, more recently, the liability of foreignness has been theoretically and empirically challenged for three main reasons: (1) the theoretical construction of the liability of foreignness is too broad and thus not clear, (2) less attention has been paid to strategies to effectively overcome the liability of foreignness, and (3) the liability of foreignness is neither applicable nor valid any more in a more globalized era. Thus, in this symposium, we aim to address these challenges while further validating the existence of the liability of foreignness. Furthermore, we also attempt to suggest an interesting future research agenda about the liability of foreignness. In particular, the four papers included in the symposium by renowned scholars in the field would provide an interesting intellectual and theory-driven conversation on the topic, and thus help to suggest a meaningful future research direction for studying the liability of foreignness. Pricing Institutional Distance: Evidence from Project Finance in Different Institutional Environment Presenter: Sinziana Dorobantu; New York U. Presenter: Jakob Müllner; WU Vienna U. of Economics and Business Presenter: Robert Salomon; NYU Stern Liability of Offshoring: Experience in Overcoming the Disadvantages of Offshore Manufacturing Presenter: Yunok Cho; Southern Methodist U. Presenter: Jaeyong Song; Seoul National U. Home Bias and Venue Choice for Patent Litigation Presenter: Byung Uk (Charlie) An; Washington U. in St. Louis, Olin Business School Presenter: Minyuan Zhao; Washington U. in St. Louis, Olin Business School The Costs of the Liability of Foreignness: Evidence from Foreign Firm Lobbying in the U.S. Presenter: Jordan Siegel; U. of Michigan, Ross School of Business Presenter: Jin Hyung Kim; George Washington U.

Knowledge frontiers and boundaries in entrepreneurship research

While the disruptive potential of knowledge has been receiving growing attention in small business economics and entrepreneurship research and application over the last decade, its boundaries and frontiers, including technological, spatial, institutional, cognitive, and cultural has not been fully explored. Here we present some reflections and a collection of papers on the role of knowledge investment across different cultural, institutional, geographical, and industrial contexts for this emerging area in entrepreneurship and management research. While being careful of the swift changes in knowledge creation, dissemination, and testing in a digital age, geography of knowledge diffusion, knowledge embeddedness into industries and places, skills, and strategies continue to change the way firms assimilate, absorb, create, and transfer knowledge. In this special issue, we extend our knowledge boundaries through knowledge collaboration theory, resource theory, open innovation theory, knowledge and creativity spillover of entrepreneurship theory, economic geography, and creative class and institutional theories. We give researchers and practitioners future directions for a very relevant and fast-growing area of entrepreneurship and small business research.

Comparing the Impact of Two Science-as-Inquiry Methods on the NOS Understanding of High-School Biology Students

The current study compared the effectiveness of two methods in biology teaching that are based on the science-as-inquiry approach: visits to authentic university laboratories (AULs) and analyzing adapted primary literature (APL). The methods’ effectiveness was measured in terms of high-school students’ increased understanding following a 6-week intervention that emphasized five major aspects of the nature of science (NOS): the tentativeness of scientific understanding, the cooperative nature of the scientific process, methodological diversity, the sociocultural embeddedness of scientific knowledge, and the aims of scientific inquiry. A quasi-experimental, pre-post control design was applied, utilizing quantitative evaluation methods. Findings indicate that teaching NOS in biology high-school classes using science-as-inquiry methods is an effective approach for enhancing NOS understanding. Both of the proposed methods appear to be promising; however, the AUL method was found to be more effective for enabling advanced-level high-school biology students’ understanding of these NOS aspects. In conclusion, both AUL and APL are potentially effective methods that can be adapted for teaching various biology subjects in different cultural contexts.

How does open innovation affect firms’ innovative performance

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the direct effects of open innovation (OI) on firms’ innovative performance, and to examine the moderating effects of knowledge attributes, including knowledge distance, knowledge embeddedness and partner opportunism on this relationship.Design/methodology/approachSurvey data of 247 samples from China were used to test the proposed model through hierarchical regression analysis.FindingsThe findings indicate that the dimensions of OI are positively related to innovative performance. The results also reveal that knowledge distance positively moderates the relationship between inbound OI and innovative performance, whereas knowledge embeddedness negatively affects that relationship. Knowledge embeddedness negatively affects the relationship between inbound OI and innovative performance, whereas knowledge distance positively moderates that relationship. Thus, a new finding is proposed that knowledge attributes could align effectively with specific OI type to achieve superior innovation outcomes. In addition, the empirical results suggest that partner opportunism plays a negative moderating role on the relationship between outbound OI and innovative performance.Originality/valueThe proposed view that a firm’s innovation outputs will be superior when its knowledge attributes effectively align with OI enriches studies of the OI context and expands the literature of both the resource-based view and the knowledge-based view. Furthermore, this study provides insights into how OI benefits can be influenced by external contexts from the perspective of partners’ opportunistic behaviour.

Existing Knowledge Assets and Disruptive Innovation: The Role of Knowledge Embeddedness and Specificity

Disruptive innovation has created a significant impact on management practices and academia. This study investigated the impact of existing knowledge assets on disruptive innovation by analyzing the role of knowledge embeddedness and specificity. We conducted a hierarchical regression analysis by using survey data from 173 Chinese industrial firms to test the direct and indirect effects of knowledge embeddedness and specificity on disruptive innovation, which can be divided into outward-oriented and internal-oriented disruptive innovation. The results indicated that knowledge embeddedness not only played a positive role in knowledge specificity, but also had a positive effect on outward-oriented disruptive innovation. Furthermore, knowledge specificity exhibited opposite functions in outward-oriented and internal-oriented disruptive innovation. In addition, knowledge specificity mediated the relationship between knowledge embeddedness and outward-oriented (internal-oriented) disruptive innovation.

Internal embeddedness, geographic distance, and global knowledge sourcing by overseas subsidiaries

We investigate determinants of global knowledge sourcing of overseas R&D subsidiaries, shedding light on vertical cross-border embeddedness within firms. Drawing on the paradox of embeddedness perspective, which assumes that embeddedness may facilitate or hinder knowledge transfer, we examine the extent to which different types of internal vertical embeddedness – administrative versus knowledge – facilitate global knowledge sourcing. We find that vertical administrative embeddedness inhibits global knowledge sourcing, while vertical knowledge embeddedness promotes it. We also find differing moderating effects of geographic distance between headquarters and its subsidiaries on the association between vertical embeddedness and global knowledge sourcing.

Optimal location of a multinational corporation resulting from knowledge transfer

PurposeA multinational corporation (MNC) looking to locate within a cluster is mainly interested in gaining access to scarce and highly valuable tacit knowledge. The transfer of such resources first requires sharing a certain degree of architectural and component knowledge. The social, organizational, cultural, institutional, technological, and physical distances between a MNC and the new subsidiary, as well as its local partners, offer a good indication of the way the architectural and technological knowledge is shared. The purpose of this paper is to examine the transfer of systemic technological expertise (component tacit knowledge) that is incorporated into organizational practices (architectural knowledge).Design/methodology/approachThe mathematical expression of localization performance is inferred from a conceptual research that formulates hypotheses regarding the impact of these variables on knowledge transfer. The MNC chooses its location in such a way as to maximize this performance.FindingsThis research contributes to a better understanding of how knowledge transfer effects may interact with local effects, while explaining a subsidiary’s performance with regard to location.Research limitations/implicationsIn order to apply this model, one would need to numerically compute the variables of this model and the performance in order to obtain a numerical estimation of the variables, by the econometric methods, which intervenes in the performance. Then one could use this numerical expression of the performance as a specific criterion of localization. Indeed it would be sufficient to evaluate both architectural and component knowledge which could be exchanged as well as different distances and the motivation for each of possible localizations and to select the one which gives the maximal numerical value for the performance.Practical implicationsThe authors deduced from the mathematical model a simple decisional criterion for a manager in search of an optimal location.Originality/valueThis research provides an interpretation of the concept of knowledge embeddedness by showing that the effective transfer of architectural and component knowledge involves the prior sharing of a certain amount of this knowledge.

Building Resilience Through Effective Disaster Management

Existing literature argues that taking a holistic approach to disaster management is important for organizations in building resilience. Theoretical underpinnings to achieve a holistic understanding, however, is lacking. This article applies the notion of an ecosystem as a holistic lens to understand complex disaster management. The paper reports two case studies from Japan and Nepal to illustrate how an ecosystem works during a disaster. The theoretical framework of information ecology is used in analyzing the cases. Based on the findings, the study shows three interconnected mechanisms that can build resilience of an ecosystem in a disaster management context, namely (1) coevolution, (2) collaboration, and (3) embeddedness of local knowledge. The authors argue that coevolution is a key to respond to constantly changing situations during a disaster. To accomplish ecosystem coevolution, creating a collaboration system with governments and local communities and embedding local knowledge into the system are essential. Furthermore, digital tools can play a critical role in the coevolution process.

Location of a multinational corporation in a cluster

PurposeA multinational company (MNC) looking to locate within a cluster is mainly interested in gaining access to scarce and highly valuable tacit knowledge. The transfer of such resources first requires sharing a certain degree of architectural and specific knowledge. This paper aims to examine the transfer of systemic technological expertise (specific tacit knowledge) that is incorporated into organisational practices (architectural knowledge). To quantify the level of knowledge transfer involved, the present study defines the architectural distance between the MNC and the cluster.Design/methodology/approachThe mathematical expression of acquisition performance is inferred from a conceptual study that formulates hypotheses regarding the impact of these variables on knowledge transfer. The MNC chooses its location in such a way as to maximise this performance.FindingsApplying a mathematical model to knowledge transfer between two of the MNC units helps to determine if the locally acquired knowledge could benefit other units of the MNC.Research limitations/implicationsThe present study defines the architectural distance between the MNC and the cluster. This architectural distance is defined by a vector composed of social, organisational, cultural, institutional, technological and geographic distances between the new acquisition and its network of local partners, on the one hand, and the MNC, on the other. Knowledge transfer also depends on the business players’ trust and motivation. Further research through a quantitative study would be useful to improve the links between the proposed mathematical model and the efficiency of an MNC’s location within a cluster.Practical implicationsThe solution to the optimisation problem allows to put forward a simple decision criterion to assist a manager who has to face the problem of an optimal location choice.Originality/valueFirst, this study contributes to a better understanding of how knowledge transfer effects may interact with cluster effects, while explaining a subsidiary’s performance with regard to location. Second, it provides an interpretation of the concept of knowledge embeddedness by showing that the effective transfer of architectural and specific knowledge involves the prior sharing of a certain amount of this knowledge.

Issues in the management of embedded knowledge in project-based organizations: the project actor’s role

Knowledge management (KM) in project-based organizations has received substantial attention in recent years, as knowledge processes are insufficiently supported within the organization as a whole. This study specifically focuses on the project actor’s role in managing knowledge. From an actor’s perspective, the problems raised by knowledge embeddedness are identified as a key issue to link project knowledge and organizational knowledge. A conceptual framework is developed that addresses three different aspects of knowledge embeddedness: a relational dimension, a temporal dimension and a structural dimension. Three cases are studied, covering varying forms of organizations in different areas (a consulting firm, an R&D department and an industrial business unit). The results concerning the relational dimension indicate that project actors re-build the network of relationships supporting knowledge. Regarding the temporal dimension, and specifically in their professional field, actors frame professional knowledge related to their project experience. However, actors fail to surmount the problems raised by the structural dimension of knowledge embeddedness. The resulting recommendations for KM concern both Human Resource Management practices and organizational design.