Codified Knowledge Research Articles

Operation‐based approach for documenting software architecture knowledge

AbstractDocumenting architectural knowledge is a tedious and time‐consuming task from the knowledge producer's point of view. As a consequence, design decisions, the underlying rationale, and the resulting designs are poorly documented. We propose to alleviate this problem by introducing an operation‐based model for documenting software architecture design processes, which makes possible to capture architectural knowledge in a non‐intrusive way as the design process takes place. By means of a flexible model that makes possible the definition and execution of different level's operations, such as operations that enclose patterns and tactics semantics, we ensure codification of general architectural knowledge and enable its recovering to use it in several design projects. From the knowledge consumers' point of view, the model provides tracing capabilities and useful mechanisms for architectural knowledge recovering.

From Anarchy to System: A Novel Classification of Visual Knowledge Codification Techniques

The paper suggests a classification of visual knowledge codification (diagramming) techniques for multi‐perspective business systems analysis and design. The classification is based on seven main categories of knowledge: what‐knowledge, how‐knowledge, who‐knowledge, why‐knowledge, what for‐knowledge, when‐knowledge and where‐knowledge. The classification defines both knowledge type and the most appropriate kind of diagramming technique. Examples for use of this classification system for marketing function applications are presented. Specific examples of these applications include mind map, concept map, Ishikawa diagram, strategy map, business process models and function trees. It is hoped that the new classification will allow better practical use of diagramming techniques in business and lead to fewer professional misunderstandings and more effective business communication. The aim of this research is thus to improve visual literacy among both business practitioners and educators. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Formas de aprendizagem e graus de inovação de produto no Brasil: uma análise exploratória dos padrões setoriais de aprendizagem

Resumo: O objetivo do artigo é ampliar a compreensão da dinâmica da inovação das firmas brasileiras. Para isso, indicadores de tipos de aprendizagem e graus de inovação foram construídos, e suas relações testadas econometricamente. Dentre os resultados, além de diferenças setoriais significativas, destacamos: (i) que inovações de maior grau decorrem de formas de aprendizagem que combinam conhecimentos codificados (como os advindos das fontes avançadas de C&T) com tácitos (frutos de interação com clientes, por exemplo); (ii) que as inovações de menor grau derivam, quase que exclusivamente, da aprendizagem de conhecimentos tácitos e, que, (iii) os clientes são sempre fontes importantes aos processos de inovação. Desta última constatação, levantamos a hipótese de que a limitada dinâmica inovadora das firmas brasileiras pode ser explicada por um aprisionamento à qualidade das demandas de seus clientes. O estímulo às exportações é a principal recomendação de política derivada, por admitir-se que clientes mais sofisticados poderão induzir trajetórias tecnológicas mais promissoras.

THE IMPORTANCE OF INTER-TEMPORAL INTEGRATION IN NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

According to the knowledge-based view (KBV), knowledge is a valuable resource that can lead to a competitive advantage. However, in industries where codified knowledge is used in developing successive iterations of products, codified knowledge has the potential to become obsolete over time and thus can also be an impediment to innovation. Using cycle-time (competitor comparison) as a performance measure, we find that inter-temporal integration — organisational practices designed to transfer tacit knowledge between former and current employees in successive new product development projects (NPDS) — enables a firm to effectively utilize codified knowledge to enhance product development cycle-time performance. Furthermore, using dysfunctional design change frequency as a performance measure, we find that inter-temporal integration has a negative relationship to this variable, but the relationship is stronger when knowledge codification is high. The results provide evidence of an important boundary condition to the benefit of codified knowledge in new product innovation.

Rolling out lean production systems: a knowledge-based perspective

Purpose– Adopting a knowledge-based perspective, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the roll-out process of lean production systems and explores the dimensions that might enhance or hinder its performance. It develops a framework to understand and design lean roll-out processes, identifying the research dimensions/design variables to classify and interpret such processes.Design/methodology/approach– This exploratory multiple case study analyses seven lean roll-out processes in multinational companies’ plants. An original data set, developed on the basis of a purposely design research protocol, was built through two rounds of plant visits and structured interviews. The cross-case analysis compares and contrasts the lean roll-out processes according to the research dimensions constituting the framework.Findings– The effectiveness and the efficiency of the lean roll-out processes: first, negatively co-vary with the degree of lean knowledge codification; second, positively co-vary with the degree of autonomy of the plant; third, positively co-vary with the degree of contextual ambidexterity. Moreover, lean roll-out processes characterized by principles-based knowledge replication strategy, plant autonomy and contextual ambidexterity are comparatively more effective and efficient.Research limitations/implications– This is an exploratory qualitative study that develops propositions potentially testable in larger scale, more analytical research.Practical implications– This study provides a tentative roadmap to successfully approach the roll-out of lean production systems in complex organizations.Originality/value– This study challenges the current theory and practice which implicitly assumes that lean roll-outs take place linearly, cascading a set of predefined lean operations practices. Instead, the authors show that a less codified, more decentralized and contextually ambidextrous approach might be more effective.

Re-distribution of knowledge for innovation around Russia

This article reveals research results on comparative analysis of the subjects of the Russian Federation in terms of accumulation of new codified knowledge with a high degree of readiness for commercialisation, i.e., the commercially ready knowledge (CRN). The study is based on two scientific approaches: 'ideas are embodied in patents' and 'ideas are concentrated in the regions'. The method of cluster analysis was used to identify four types of regions according to the share of CRN accumulated in the respective regions on a national scale. Within the first three clusters - the major, large and medium, the following sub-clusters were identified: 'largely creators' and 'largely consumers'. The relationship between the level of innovative economic development of the region and the need for CRN is confirmed. Conclusions are made on comparability of generated and absorbed flow of new knowledge within regional innovation systems.

Determining strategic shifts between codification and personalization in operational environments

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to indicate that managers responsible for decision making often have a limited appreciation of strategic shifts between codification and personalization of knowledge in different operational environments. This study is motivated by a concern to illuminate the influence of diverse business environments in the shift between strategies of knowledge in organizations. Design/methodology/approach – A qualitative multiple case-study method was adopted to research four case organizations drawn from multiple industries – manufacturing, research, education and consulting – that are positioned within contrasting operating environments (i.e. local, national, international and multinational, respectively). Findings – Results from the case studies suggest that four factors condition shifts between codification and personalization strategies in different operational environments that are of critical significance for the effective use of knowledge in organizations. The authors have also found that strategic shifts between codification and personalization are continuous and emergent. Originality/value – The study suggests that the combination of multi-operational types and four elements (i.e. competition, organizational size, organizational structure and information technology) are highly relevant for determining the shifts between codification and personalization strategies in organizations.

Teorija nastanka postindustrijskog društva Danijela Bela

Twenty-five years after the publication of the famous Daniel Bell's book The Coming of Post-industrial Society, new edition of the book was published with a foreword written by the author named 'The Axial Age of Technology'. In the foreword Bell clarifies his theses and predictions in relation to the changes that have taken place in meantime in contemporary society, as well as regarding to the critics of his theory. The aim of the paper is to show how Bell explains social development in the second half of the twentieth century as well as the main characteristics of that society of 'transitory nature' in which we live. Bell's starting theoretical and methodological point of view are discussed as well as the explanation of transition from industrial to post-industrial society and the possibilities of development of the third world societies. The main characteristic of post-industrial society, according to Bell, is the codification of theoretical knowledge and the new relation between science and technology. Main post-industrial developments are: the rise of service sector, occupational changes, changes in professions and education, growing role of financial and human capital, new forms of infrastructure and knowledge theory of value. New form of society is emerging, with changes in stratification system, economy, organization and consumption. Bell doesn't plead for a holistic view of society. Instead, he considers society as comprising three realms that can change in different ways, so historical change is not unified. Major instrument of historical change is technology, it poses problems for culture and political system but it doesn't determine them. He rejects the accusations of technological determinism because technology often operates in context it doesn't make. Daniel Bell was one of the first authors who stated that modern society had been fundamentally changing. His aim was to make a conceptual framework for the comprehensive explanation of contemporary social change. One can point to several theoretical and methodological problems Bell's explanation of modern society faces with (as well as some other theories of social change) such as technological determinism, unilinear concept of development and so, but he has built a sociological theory of contemporary social change, which encouraged intense debate in the social sciences and set up one of the possible starting points for understanding the contemporary social dynamics, theories of the information society.

When Does Repository KMS Use Lift Performance? The Role of Alternative Knowledge Sources and Task Environments

Despite a general consensus that use of information technology (IT) is an important link between IT investments and performance, the extant literature provides only a limited explanation as to when the use of IT lifts performance. We posit that the impact of knowledge management systems (KMS) usage is contingent on users' alternative sources of knowledge as well as their specific task environments. We investigate under what conditions repository KMS use leads to higher performance outcomes in a retail grocery context. We use a unique longitudinal dataset composed of objective measures of KMS use and sales performance of 273 managers over 146 weeks collected from a retail grocery chain. We obtain two main results. First, we find a diminishing impact of KMS use for managers who also use other sources of codified knowledge, namely physical or computerized alternative knowledge sources, whereas a complementary relationship seems to exist between KMS use and social sources of knowledge. Second, KMS use produces higher benefits for managers whose task environments require a greater volume of information and knowledge, but smaller benefits for those managers whose task environments demand rapidly changing information and knowledge. Our work contributes to both the IT business value and the KM literature by studying the contingent impact of IT usage while broadening the theoretical scope of the situated knowledge performance framework with a critical empirical test based on fine-grained objective and longitudinal data.

Standardization efforts: The relationship between knowledge dimensions, search processes and innovation outcomes

We explore how a standardization effort (i.e., when a firm pursues standards to further innovation) involves different search processes for knowledge and innovation outcomes. Using an inductive case study of Vanke, a leading Chinese property developer, we show how varying degrees of knowledge complexity and codification combine to produce a typology of four types of search process: active, integrative, decentralized and passive, resulting in four types of innovation outcome: modular, radical, incremental and architectural. We argue that when the standardization effort in a firm involves highly codified knowledge, incremental and architectural innovation outcomes are fostered, while modular and radical innovations are hindered. We discuss how standardization efforts can result in a second-order innovation capability, and conclude by calling for comparative research in other settings to understand how standardization efforts can be suited to different types of search process in different industry contexts.

'I'll Share But in My Own Way': Factors Affecting Sharing Knowledge in Routine Work or Separate Activity

Firms implement Electronic Knowledge Repositories (EKR) to support the codification, storage and reuse of knowledge. Despite their increasing popularity, EKRs are only as useful as the knowledge they hold. Prior studies on factors affecting knowledge sharing through EKRs have, however, provided inconsistent results. In this paper, we argue that the nature and determinants of knowledge sharing differ depending on whether the individual is sharing knowledge – as a part of his or her routine work (i.e., embedded knowledge sharing) or not (i.e., segregated knowledge sharing). The paper draws upon the Motivation-Opportunity-Availability framework to examine the effects of factors related to motivation, opportunity, and availability on knowledge sharing in in these two contexts. Moreover, the paper draws upon social exchange theory to examine the effects of alternative mechanisms for knowledge sourcing on subsequent knowledge sharing through EKR. Building on these arguments and prior literature, the paper develops a theoretical model of factors affecting knowledge sharing. The model is tested using survey data from 112 knowledge workers in a Fortune 100 company. The results generally support our arguments regarding embedded and segregated knowledge sharing being influenced by different factors, and provide theoretical and practical guidance to improve knowledge management.

Gestalt principles of creating learning business ontologies for knowledge codification

This paper presents an approach aimed at creating business ontologies for knowledge codification in company. It is based on the principles of ontological engineering and cognitive psychology. Ontologies that describe the main concepts of knowledge are used both for knowledge creation and codification. The proposed framework is targeted at the development of methodologies that can scaffold the process of knowledge structuring and orchestrating for better understanding and knowledge sharing. The orchestrating procedure is the kernel of ontology development. The main stress is put on using visual techniques of mind mapping. Cognitive bias and some results of Gestalt psychology are highlighted as a general guideline. The ideas of balance, clarity, and beauty are applied to the ontology orchestrating procedures. The examples are taken mainly from the project management practice. The paper contributes to managerial practice by describing the practical recommendations for effective knowledge management based on ontology engineering and knowledge structuring techniques.

Standards, learning, and growth inBritain, 1901–2009

This article considers the model of voluntary, consensus based standardization as developed through theBritishStandardsInstitution (BSI) and its contribution to learning and productivity growth. It discusses the significant role played by professional engineers in the model's introduction, its extension at home, and its imitation overseas. It is argued that by 1931 theBSIcatalogue of standards represented a considerable stock of codified knowledge whose growth reflected underlying aggregate technological opportunities, assisting in their transformation into technological advance. To help validate this claim, a measure of the size of theBSIcatalogue of standards is incorporated into an econometric model of aggregate productivity growth in Britain. Findings show that the growth of the standards catalogue is associated with a substantial proportion of labour productivity growth over the period 1931–2009. Estimates relating to the short‐run dynamics involved are consistent with the idea that there are causal linkages running from standards to growth. When interpreting these findings, it is argued that the overall weight of historical evidence points to standardization—coordinated through theBSI—as providing an important path of learning for the British economy over the period considered.

Adaptive Knowledge Encoding for Agile Cybersecurity Operations

AbstractAn agile cybersecurity operation is the dynamic adaptability of security services and mechanisms including people, process, technology, and environment to ensure organizational efficacy. Two key roles in agile security operations are cybersecurity operators and cybersecurity analysts. Both are overwhelmed with data and information, but underwhelmed in knowledge and understanding. Adaptive knowledge encoding introduces cybersecurity decision patterns (CDPs) and a cybersecurity decision pattern language (CDPL) as formal knowledge representation and a formal knowledge repository to capture, codify, and share knowledge that supports cybersecurity operators and analysts ability to perform timely agile cybersecurity operations. The Knowledge Engineer applies CDPs and the CDPL to provide a cybersecurity cognitive schema that dynamically adapts by assimilating new CDPs in the CDPL structure and acclimating the CDPL structure to new knowledge. CDPs and the CDPL together with applied fundamentals of agile systems engineering help facilitate the design and sustainment of agile cybersecurity operations.

Assessing Professional Know-How

This article considers how professional knowledge should be assessed. It is maintained that the assessment of professional know-how raises distinctive issues from the assessment of know-how more generally. Intellectualist arguments which suggest that someone's giving an account of how to F should suffice for attributing to them knowledge of how to F are set out. The arguments fail to show that there is no necessary distinction between two kinds of know-how, namely the ability to F and knowing that w is a way to F, such that the latter is more fundamental. The consequences of this failure for our understanding of professional assessment are then considered. The issue of the assessment of tacit knowledge is then addressed. It is concluded that there is no context-dependent codifiable or articulable propositional knowledge of how to F which could be substituted for being able to F and that therefore tacit knowledge can only be assessed in performance. The parallel with Gettier cases is reviewed and it is concluded that the provenance of accounts of and justifications for the attribution of know-how are not matters of indifference to its assessment. Finally, the question of evaluability or what Ryle would have called the applicability of intelligence epithets is discussed in relation to its relevance to our procedures for assessing practical knowledge. Once again, it is concluded that excellent performance is necessary to attribute excellence in know-how. However, the ability to give an account of how and why an agent would do something in hypothetical circumstances is also very important for the assessment of professional knowledge.

Learning from complex and heterogeneous experiences: the role of knowledge codification

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to study organizational learning from complex and heterogeneous experiences. According to March (2010), this kind of high intellect learning is difficult to accomplish because it requires deliberate investments in knowledge transfer and creation. Zollo and Winter (2002) emphasized how knowledge codification can facilitate this process, as long as it is “well-performed”. However, knowledge management scholars have yet to explore what is meant by well-performed codification and how to achieve it.Design/methodology/approach– This paper addresses this gap and provides a conceptual analysis based on two related but previously disconnected research areas: organizational learning and knowledge management.Findings– This paper contributes to the literature in three ways. First, a new understanding of different types of experiences and their effects on learning is proposed. Then the codification process using a critical realist paradigm to overcome the epistemological boundaries of knowledge versus knowing is discussed; in doing so, it is shown that codification can take different forms to be “well-performed”. Finally, appropriate codification strategies based on experience type are identified.Originality/value– The abstraction-oriented codification outlined in this paper runs counter to the logic of concrete codification that dominates both theory and practice. Thus, going beyond the traditional debate on the degree of codification (i.e. should knowledge be fully codified or just partly codified), this paper introduced a new debate about the appropriate degree of abstraction.

Crowdsourced translation for rapid internationalization in cyberspace: A learning perspective

This paper explores how Facebook effectively used crowdsourced translation to accelerate its rapid internationalization. We apply the learning perspective of internationalization theory to unpack what the firm learned in order to mobilize crowd-based knowledge to facilitate internationalization in the virtual context, and how it did so. Increasingly, global activities are conducted in virtual space and virtual markets and thus the paper offers insights into successful expansion in this new terrain. The findings highlight two key points: (1) the firm used cognitive/explicit learning to acquire external and codified knowledge, rather than the experiential knowledge traditionally suggested in the literature on the process of internationalization, and (2) the firm's success rested on its ability to use virtual learning tools and incentive systems to acquire, articulate and integrate knowledge from communities of internationally dispersed users – the “crowd” – to accelerate its internationalization in cyberspace. This empirical study extends internationalization theory regarding knowledge and organizational learning.

Does Combinatorial Knowledge Lead to a Better Innovation Performance of Firms?

The knowledge base concept in the past was often applied in its “pure form”, i.e. it was assumed that there are dominant knowledge bases in particular sectors and firms shaping knowledge and innovation processes and related networks. For “analytical sectors” such as biotech, it has been argued that codified knowledge generated by universities and R&D organizations is the key for innovation, whereas “synthetic sectors” such as machinery innovate more incrementally by recombining existing knowledge often drawn from suppliers or service firms. Empirical literature has partly confirmed these patters, but also shown more complex knowledge processes. More recently it has been argued that combinations of different knowledge bases might enhance the innovation performance of firms. For example in “analytical sectors”, firms might benefit not just from new and basic knowledge generated by research, but also from recombining existing and applied knowledge or by drawing on symbolic knowledge. Combinatorial knowledge bases might also be relevant for “synthetic” and “symbolic sectors”, but in different forms. This study investigates for the ICT sector in regions of Austria if the reliance on combinatorial knowledge leads to a better innovation performance than the use of more narrow knowledge bases.

Determinants of university–firm R&D collaboration and its impact on innovation: A perspective from a low-tech industry

The main aim of the paper is to examine the drivers of university–firm R&D collaboration while at the same time assessing the determinants of innovation in a low-tech industry. This includes analysing firm R&D collaborations with partners different from universities.The paper relies on a unique data-set where firm data were sourced from the Capitalia survey, covering the 1995–2006 years, and the university data were gathered from a number of sources.Result from a multivariate probit model reiterate that university–firm R&D collaboration affects process innovation. Evidence of a more novel kind suggests that product innovation is positively affected by geographical proximity to a university but is negatively affected by the amount of its codified knowledge production. Degree programmes in fields useful for local firms favour R&D collaborations. Academic policies that aim to commercialise research output negatively impact both product and process innovations of local firms.

Going the distance: The pros and cons of expanding employees’ global knowledge reach

While some scholars have suggested MNEs to be superior to markets for managing knowledge across geographically distant boundaries, how they actually accomplish this has not been fully considered. We address this void by developing and testing a model that highlights the critical role of organizational incentives in enhancing employees’ internal search and use of knowledge. Data from 166 knowledge-intensive projects support our argument that, in contrast to process-based incentives that influence more local search, outcome-based incentives motivate employee teams to reach well beyond their immediate location, which in turn enhances performance. At the same time, we demonstrate that expanded reach also increases the likelihood of accessing more codifiable knowledge, which can hurt performance. Our model examines the contradictory – and previously unknown – effects of global knowledge reach.