Kinesthetic Modalities Research Articles

The Effect Of Learning Preference On Coefficient Of Variation In Maximal Muscle Performance

Human movement behaviors have been distinguished by motor learning theorists based on spatiotemporal and kinesthetic relationships. Newell's conceptual framework of motor learning calls for the sequential assembly of information processed by the brain and manifested by the acquisition of the desired coordinated movement pattern, or “skill.” Visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modalities have been identified as preferences by which adults learn. Maximal force production (MFP) is considered a psychomotor skill in view of the fact that it involves, “assigning a maximal force to the muscles in a coordinated manner (Kelso, 1982).” Accordingly, since MFP is a skill, learning must occur in order for the skill to be attained. Isokinetic dynamometry is a widely used and accepted method of quantifying dynamic MFP. While isokinetic testing protocols address each of these learning modalities, reproducibility of torque curves as measured by coefficient of variation (COV) suggests that subsequent training sessions are necessary for the learning affect to occur. However, it has not been investigated if disparate learning preferences affect variability in acquiring the skill of reproducing MFP. PURPOSE Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if there is a relationship between learning preference and COV in isokinetic knee extension/flexion exercise. METHODS Thirty-two novice subjects (6 males, 26 females, age 38.0 ± 13.1 yrs, ht 172.8 ± 42.7 cm, wt 64.9 ± 18.1 kg) completed the Rezler and Rezmovic Learning Preference Inventory to determine learning preference levels. Subjects were introduced to isokinetic exercise through verbal description and demonstration of the movement to accommodate auditory and visual learning. They also performed gradient warm-up repetitions to facilitate kinesthetic learning. Subjects were instructed to perform 5 maximal reciprocal repetitions of dominant knee extension/flexion at 180 d/s. RESULTS Statistical analysis revealed a significant (p<0.05) correlation between visual learning score and COV (r=.38). CONCLUSIONS Within the limitations of this study, these results suggest that there may be an inverse relationship between desirable visual learning preference and COV. Therefore, practitioners should rely on multi-modal strategies when instructing novice subjects on an isokinetic dynamometer.

Kinesthetic estimation of the main orientations from the upright and supine positions

This work investigated the accuracy of the perception of the main orientations (i.e., vertical and horizontal orientations) with the kinesthetic modality––a modality not previously used in this field of research. To further dissociate the influence of the postural and physical verticals, two body positions were explored (supine and upright). Twenty-two blindfolded participants were asked to set, as accurately as possible, a rod to both physical orientations while assuming one of the two body positions. The horizontal was perceived more accurately than the vertical orientation in the upright position but not in the supine position. Essentially, there were no differences in the supine position because the adjustments to the physical vertical were much more accurate than they were in the upright position. The lower accuracy in the estimation of the vertical orientation observed in the upright position might be linked to the dynamics associated with the maintenance of posture.

Gifted Achievers and Gifted Underachievers: The Impact of Learning Style Preferences in the Classroom

This article focuses on the learning style preferences of achieving and underachieving gifted middle school students. Learning style was determined through administration of the Learning Style Inventory (LSI). Both groups of participants revealed several learning style preferences that were quite similar. However, examination of LSI profiles revealed some differences between achievers and underachievers in preferences for quiet or sound, flexibility or structure in assignments, and level of need for mobility. Many low achievers showed a strong need for tactile and kinesthetic modalities; intake of food, drinks, or both; sound in the learning environment; informal seating design; and dim lighting. The low achievers did not perceive themselves to be persistent, and scores revealed that they needed structure in assignments. Persistence seemed to be a key to success for the achieving learners in this study since they were able to maintain high academic performance in all content areas. Over half of the low achievers, on the other hand, did not judge themselves to be successful at task completion.

A Comparison of Three Nonvisual Methods for Presenting Scientific Graphs

This study implemented three different methods for presenting scientific graphs to visually impaired people: audition, kinesthetics, or a combination of the two. The results indicate that the combination of both audio and kinesthetic modalities can be a promising representation medium of common scientific graphs for people who are visually impaired.

Middle School Students Increase Their Vocabulary Knowledge Using Learning Style Preferences

This study compared students’ individual learning style preferences on vocabulary achievement in grade seven of communication arts classes by investigating those factors that contribute to intermediate school students’ vocabulary achievement. The Dunn and Dunn Model of Learning Styles preferences (1989) served as a framework to analyze the interconnections among auditory, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic learning modalities and its effect on vocabulary achievement. The sample population was 240 seventh grade students from the metropolitan New York area. The students were of African American and Hispanic ethnicity. The conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that learning styles may not be useful for students from the inner city. The results of this study throw into question the educational benefit that has been promoted in previous Learning Style research. Students who are from low socioeconomic backgrounds may not always achieve vocabulary mastery using the tactual, kinesthetic, visual, and auditory resources promoted by the learning style literature.

Tactile and kinesthetic perceptual processes within the taxonomy of human cognitive abilities

The vast majority of research in psychology has been preoccupied with understanding visual and auditory processes. Clearly, however, other perceptual mechanisms generate meaningful individual differences, which might be related to intelligent functioning. The present study extends the results of a recent multivariate investigation examining certain critical features of the tactile and kinesthetic modalities. Participants ( N=116) were administered eight traditional psychometric instruments and 14 measures of tactile and kinesthetic perceptual processes. The results are consistent with earlier findings in demonstrating that visual–spatial processes are difficult to separate from complex measures of tactile and kinesthetic processing. However, structural equation modeling provided evidence for independent kinesthetic and tactile factors that were (differentially) correlated with fluid intelligence (Gf). The first factor — kinesthetic sensitivity (KS) — exemplifies an ability to determine (or remember) the position of the arm, or the trajectory of arm movements, without using vision. The second factor — tactile sensitivity (TS) — represents an ability to discriminate and infer the form of stimuli applied to the skin. These tactile and kinesthetic processes appear narrower than other perceptual constructs such that they are encapsulated by first-order (rather than broad intellective) factors.

Using learning style to predict foreign language achievement at the college level

Although researchers have examined the role of learning styles in foreign language achievement, many studies have investigated isolated dimensions of this construct (e.g. field independence/dependence). Relatively few studies have used a comprehensive learning styles instrument to determine predictors of achievement in college foreign language classes. Thus, the purpose of this study was to use a broadly focused learning style instrument to identify a combination of learning styles that might be correlated with foreign language achievement at the college level. It was hoped that findings from this study would facilitate the identification of college students who are at risk of underachieving in foreign language classes. Participants were 100 university students enrolled in either French or Spanish first and second semester courses. All possible subsets multiple regression analyses revealed that higher achievers in foreign language courses tend to like informal classroom designs and to prefer not to receive information via the kinesthetic mode. Certain learning style variables (i.e. responsibility and mobility), when included in the model, acted as suppressors, increasing the predictive power of classroom design preference and kinesthetic orientation with respect to achievement. The educational implications of these findings for understanding the potential relationships between learning styles and foreign language achievement are discussed, as are suggestions for future research.

Clients' internal representations of their therapists.

Thirteen adults in long-term individual psychotherapy were interviewed regarding their internal representations (defined as bringing to awareness the internalized image) of their therapists. Results indicated that in the context of a good therapeutic relationship, clients' internal representations combined auditory, visual, and kinesthetic (i.e., felt presence) modalities; were triggered when clients thought about past or future sessions, or when distressed; occurred in diverse locations; and varied in frequency, duration, and intensity. Clients felt positively about their representations and used them to introspect or influence therapy within sessions, beyond sessions, or both. The frequency of, comfort with, and use of clients' internal representations increased over the course of therapy, and the representations benefited the therapy and therapeutic relationship. Therapists tended not to take a deliberate role in creating clients' internal representations, and few clients discussed their internal representations with their therapists.

The relationship between library anxiety and learning styles among graduate students: Implications for library instruction

Because library anxiety can be an impediment to academic achievement among graduate students, this study determines the characteristics of this anxiety. Specifically, the relationship between learning style and library anxiety was investigated. A setwise multiple regression analysis revealed that students with the highest levels of library anxiety tend be those who like structure, who are self-motivated, who lack persistence, and who are peer-oriented learners. In addition, they tend to prefer to receive information via the visual mode, but not via either tactile or kinesthetic modes. Finally, these students tend to require mobility in learning environments and do not prefer to undertake difficult tasks in the afternoon. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Responses to Rhythm Patterns When Presented to Children through Auditory, Visual, and Kinesthetic Modalities

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of three rhythm presentation modalities on the recall of rhythm patterns. Seventy first graders, 70 third graders, and 70 fifth graders were tested either visually, auditorily, kinesthetically, or with combinations of these modalities. Each child was asked to memorize and clap six rhythm patterns of increasing difficulty, which were presented either iconically (visually), by playing a resonator bell (auditorily), by patting the child's hand (kinesthetically), or through combinations of these treatments. Grade level was significant ( p &lt; .0001). Test scores from students who were presented rhythm patterns using a multimodality presentation indicate that students were not confused by the multisensory input. The first-grade visual test results were significantly lower ( p &lt; .05) than results with older children. These findings suggest that the incorporation of learning modalities into music teaching methods could result in more efficient learning of rhythm patterns. Although the visual met hod for first graders was not as effective as other presentations, older children were successful with all combinations of leaching presentations.

Microrecording for the study of thalamic organization, for tumor biopsy and removal.

Use of microrecording technique in stereotactic selective thalamotomy, and in stereotactic biopsy for deep-seated lesions and in tumor removal was briefly described. For selective thalamotomy, the microrecording gives ample information to delineate thalamic subnuclei. Thus, the ventrointermedius (Vim) nucleus is identified by high-amplitude background activity and large-spike discharge, some of which responds solely to contralateral natural stimuli of kinesthetic modality. A small coagulation including this thalamic Vim point resulted in permanent arrest of the various kinds of tremor. As the normal brain tissue, whether the gray or white matter, is electrically active, the microrecording is useful to delineate the brain tumor from its surroundings. Stereotactic diagnostic biopsy and removal of the brain tumor were facilitated by this adjuvant method.

Two Instructional Approaches to the Development of Aural and Instrumental Performance Skills

The purpose of this study was to determine whether beginning instrumental students taught with a modeling (aural and kinesthetic) mode of instruction would develop better aural musicianship and instrumental performance skills than would beginning instrumental students taught with a comprehensive (aural, kinesthetic, and visual) mode of instruction. The author randomly assigned students from four intact instrumental classes ( N = 76) to either a modeling or a comprehensive treatment. The instructional activities for these treatments consisted of a sequence of imitation, discrimination, and association activities. The primary difference between the groups was that the comprehensive treatment included music reading activities but the modeling treatment did not. Test score analyses indicated that differences between the groups were not significant on the ear-to-hand coordination test and the performance test but were significant, favoring the comprehensive treatment, on the verbal association test and the sight-reading test. The data indicated that the introduction of music reading activities did not impede the development of students' aural and instrumental performance skills.

Association of preference for modality to learning of rhythm patterns in music.

This study examined the relationship between preferences for learning modality and the learning and short-term retention of musical rhythm patterns. 55 third graders completed the Swassing Barbe Modality Index. These students were also presented two-measure rhythm patterns through their visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modalities. Analysis indicated that children who preferred on the modality index one modality over others tended to prefer that same modality when learning simple musical rhythms.

Categorizing Sensory Reception in Four Modes: Support for Representational Systems

The study explored the basic tenet of Neurolinguistic Programming theory, the senses through which people receive information. Visual, auditory-tonal, auditory-digital, and kinesthetic sense modalities were objectively categorized as separate modes for receiving information. The responses of 176 study participants in a film-questionnaire setting also indicated more preference for the use of auditory-tonal, auditory-digital, and kinesthetic sensory modes than the visual modality.

Cell sparse zones in the ventrolateral thalamic mass in humans, monkeys and cats: their special reference to kinesthetic neurons.

The Vim nucleus of the human thalamus is the cell sparse zone. The neurons in this zone respond to peripheral stimuli of kinesthetic modality with a short latency. In the cytometrical study, the cell sparse zone is identifiable in both the monkey and cat thalamus. The cell dimension and density in a 1 mm2 area in the cell sparse zone of each species are as follows: humans--large neuron 500-900 microns2, medium neuron 200-400 microns2, cell density 60-90/mm2/50 microns thickness; monkeys--large neuron 400-800 microns2, medium neuron 200-400 microns2, cell density 120-250/mm2/50 microns thickness; cats--large neuron 400-800 microns2, medium neuron 200-400 microns2, cell density 120-250/mm2/50 microns thickness. In this zone, there are large and medium thalamocortical relay neurons defined by the Golgi impregnated and HRP studies. It is still obscure which neurons respond to kinesthetic stimulation and which neurons or afferent fibers play important roles in the tremor mechanism.

Retention of Movement Cues by Visually Impaired Persons

Describes the results of an experiment which examined whether kinesthetic movement information in a short memory paradigm of visually impaired persons was superior to that of sighted individuals. It was expected that visually impaired subjects would have developed a more sophisticated and refined kinesthetic modality and thus would produce less absolute and variable error than that of the sighted subjects on a movement retention task. It was found that the visually impaired and sighted subjects were equally effective in using the kinesthetic system to retain distance and location cues but the visually impaired subjects were significantly more variable in movement reproduction than were sighted subjects.

How is linguistic memory accessed? A psychophysiological approach.

The role of "subvocalization" during language comprehension, especially reading, is examined. Four arguments against it having a role in accessing memory are erroneous because 1) its latency is much shorter than is conventionally stated; 2) rate of visual information processing is erroneously estimated by failing to distinguish between reading and scanning; 3) covert speech does not disappear in the competent language performer; and 4) the argument that subvocalization is an epiphenomenon is irrelevant. Rather, data support the generalization that covert speech is present during all cognitive functioning and that its specific topography is discriminatively related to the class of phoneme being processed. It is thus inferred that during cognition the speech musculature generates a phonetic code that may function to access linguistic memory. However, since there are also numerous other psychophysiologic events associated with covert speech, a multichannel processing system is hypothesized wherein speech, visual, and kinesthetic modalities interact with the brain. Illustrations are given of how this accessing model is compatible with existing holographic and feature analyzer models of memory. Data are presented that illustrate how phonetically encoded neuromuscular events can be directly measured through psychophysiologic methods. It is hypothesized that cognitive processes are generated when cybernetic neuromuscular circuits selectively interact. Consequently, all components of these neuromuscular circuits serve a function during cognition so that a role for "subvocalization" (a muscular component) cannot be ruled out in an apriori manner.

The kinesthetic fusion effect: perceptual elimination of spatial discordance in the kinesthetic modality.

Three experiments in intrasensory kinesthetic discordance are reported. The treatment required both arms to be outstretched in the midsagittal plane. In the absence of vision, a finger of one hand depressed a button that caused a probe to touch the other arm 12.7 cm closer to the body than the position of the finger. This difference was at first clearly sensed, but very rapidly the disparate positions were perceived to be identical: We have called this “the kinesthetic fusion effect.” It was also shown that a delay of up to 4 sec in probe onset after the finger depressed the button did not diminish the extent of fusion. The phenomenon gave rise to a predictable aftereffect, in which a probe directly opposite to the active finger was sensed to be farther away than the finger. The results were not due either to joint adaptation or to postural aftereffects.

Handedness Effects in Kinesthetic Spatial Location Judgements

This experiment examines hemispheric assymetry in reproduction of spatial location in the kinesthetic modality. Using a dichotomous presentation technique, blindfolded, right-handed subjects moved both arms (arm positioning task) or the thumb (thumb positioning task) of each hand simultaneously to predetermined spatial locations and were subsequently asked to reproduce these locations. The results showed a marked left hand advantage only in the thumb positioning task suggesting that the right hemisphere was superior in performing this task. These data were discussed as they relate to other evidence pertaining to cerebral hemispheric specialization in motor activities.

Psychological evaluation of specific learning disorders

The diagnosis of specific learning disorders is a complex undertaking that requires the examination of a number of psychological dimensions. The “learning disabilities” label has often been abused and is frequently used to explain a wide range of school and behavior problems with little understanding of the criteria necessary for differential diagnosis. A complete evaluation for learning disabilities must assess cultural, structural, and emotional variables as well as intellectual functioning and academic achievement. Examination of the functional integrity of the various perceptual processes, including visual, auditory and kinesthetic modalities, is necessary, The clinician must establish that a delay in achievement does actually exist and that poor school performance is not a result of poor motivation or an unwillingness to demonstrate acquired skills. If a significant delay is found in the acquisition of secondary language symbol skills, then the examiner is pressed to determine which specific psychological, perceptual-associational, memory, or motor deficits are responsible for the learning disorder.