Kinesiological Electromyography Research Articles

Strengthening education in rehabilitation: Assessment technology and digitalization.

Rehabilitation is a discipline increasingly growing around the world due to several reasons, but probably the most important one is aging population and chronicity. A need to harmonize education has been identified, and although several International organizations such as the European Union of Medical Specialists (UEMS) and the International Society of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (ISPRM) have defined standards, given the quick growth of new evidence and assessment methods an urge to establish new ones arises. Functional assessment and tools used to do so are key in rehabilitation processes. This comprises self-reported questionnaires, conventional clinical evaluation but more notably high technology assessment methods, such as movement analysis systems, posturography, different types of dynamometers and kinesiologic electromyography among others. More recently, a wide range of wearable systems has been introduced in patient assessment. This is generating many published protocols as well as reliability and validity studies. The objective of this narrative review is to present main assessment technologies relevant to rehabilitation, its situation of this specific area in pre-graduate and post-graduate rehabilitation educational programs, and to elaborate a formative proposal including technological foundations of assessment and also highlighting the importance of solid reliability and validity of assessment methods comprehension. The main objective of this proposal is to provide basic knowledge about rehabilitation and methodologies for outcomes evaluation, including new technologies, to all health professionals, but especially to those who work or will work in the field of Rehabilitation.

Test methods development of biomechanics of human movement utilizing the kinesiological electromyography

The article presents the issues concerning the development of methods for performing human biomechanics research utilizing kinesiological electromyography. The procedures concerning the selection of the location of electrodes, patient preparation for testing, conducting the experiment and the development of measurement results are dis-cussed in detail. Selected preliminary test results were also presented.

Effectiveness of Combined General Rehabilitation Gymnastics and Muscle Energy Techniques in Older Women with Chronic Low Back Pain.

Objective The aim of this study was to determine the effect of general rehabilitation gymnastics on subjective and objective characteristics of locomotor system in older women with chronic LBP. To satisfy this goal, the outcomes in exercising women were compared with the results of nonexercising controls. Material and Methods The study group included 21 women with chronic LBP (age 65-75 years), participating in a 3-year general rehabilitation program combining strength, stretching, endurance, balance, and stabilization exercises with Muscle Energy Techniques (MET). Control group included 20 women with chronic LBP, who neither undertook the gymnastics nor participated in other forms of physical activity. The list of outcome measures included pain severity (Numeric Rating Scale), limitations in the activities of daily living (Oswestry Disability Index and Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire), mobility of all spinal segments (tensometric electrogoniometry), and bioelectrical activity of back muscles (kinesiologic electromyography). Results Exercising women presented with lesser severity of current pain (by 62%, p<0.001) and pain experienced during the last three months (by 32.5%, p<0.001), reported less ailments during the last three months, and had fewer limitations in the activities of daily living (a 30% decrease in Oswestry Disability Index, p<0.05, and a 65% decrease in Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire scores, p<0.001) than the controls. Moreover, they showed significantly higher values of nearly all spondylometric parameters except for cervical lateral flexion. The study groups did not differ in the amplitudes of bioelectrical signal from the back muscles. Conclusions These findings may point to beneficial effects of the combined exercise program.

35. Surface polyelectromyography – Principle of the method and possible use in dysphagia

Surface polyelectromyography (PEMG) represents a specific application of electromyography (EMG) in the functional analysis of movement (”kinesiological EMG”) with the aid of simultaneous recordings of electrical activity from multiple muscles using specialised equipment (typically 16 channels). Swallowing is a very complex function that involves 26 muscles in head and neck. The authors present their experience with PEMG in 12 patients with dysphagia, particularly after a cerebrovascular accident. They used subsurface layer muscle groups (orbicularis oris, masseter muscle, submental and laryngeal muscles) and simple standardised tests (dry swallowing, swallowing 20 ml of water and drinking 100 ml of water without interruption) for a PEMG examination at the beginning and end of an intensive physiotherapy and speech therapy. PEMG findings are presented in practical illustrations of specific cases including software processed EMG signals. PEMG (unlike ”classic EMG”) does not provide information to identify the clinical diagnostic units that cause a disorder. However, it facilitates, in terms of muscle activity, the characterisation of a functional disturbance (acknowledging limitations of the elusive definition for a normal movement pattern) and to monitor the evolution of functional parameters over time including its reaction to various influences (e.g. therapy). Supported by the project Ministry of Health, Czech Republic NT13725–4/2012.

Electromyographic Assessment of the Lumbar Multifidus During Motor Control Exercises in Healthy Adults

Motor control exercises are commonly prescribed by healthcare and fitness professionals for the treatment and prevention of low back pain. Unfortunately, evidence quantifying the activation of the deep lumbar multifidus (LM) muscle during exercise is limited. PURPOSE: Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the level of electromyography (EMG) activity in the deep LM during 7 commonly prescribed motor control exercises. METHODS: Twenty healthy volunteers (31.3 ± 8.9 years; 10 males, 10 females) performed a maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), followed by 7 motor control exercises in a counterbalanced sequence. Subjects performed 3 trials of each exercise with 60 seconds of rest between trials and a 90 second period of rest between each exercise. Under the guidance of ultrasound imaging, fine-wire electrodes were inserted into the deep LM between the 4th and 5th lumbar levels. The average percent MVIC was used for data analysis. A one-way repeated measure ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc analysis for pair wise comparisons were calculated. RESULTS: Statistical analysis indicated a significant effect (p < 0.001) across exercises. Post hoc analysis revealed that the prone leg lift (31.95 ± 15.04 %MVIC) resulted in the greatest activation of the LM and was significantly (p < 0.05) different from all other exercises besides the horizontal side support (HSS; 24.57 ± 11.82 %MVIC). The HSS was not statistically different from the next two exercises, prone arm lift (19.35 ± 15.70 %MVIC) and the LM swell (9.35 ± 13.09 %MVIC). The final 3 exercises demonstrated the least amount of LM neuromuscular activation and included the seated trunk rotation (12.32 ± 9.65 %MVIC), side-lying hip draw (9.56 ± 9.13 %MVIC) and quadruped trunk rotation (4.73 ± 3.39 %MVIC). CONCLUSIONS: Kinesiological EMG revealed 3 tiers of LM muscle activation for the examined motor control exercises. Specifically, the prone leg lift and HSS maximally activated the LM. The second tier of exercises involved equal levels of LM activation and included the prone arm lift and LM swell. The final tier consisted of the seated trunk rotation, side-lying hip draw, and the quadruped trunk rotation which demonstrated minimal and variable LM EMG activity. These results help to inform exercise progression clinical decision making for those with LM deficits.

Neurophysiologic Testing in Neurogenic Bladder Dysfunction: Practical or Academic?

For the diagnosis of neurogenic bladder, in addition to clinical assessment, neurophysiologic testing may be useful. Neurophysiologic tests are more useful in patients with sacral compared with suprasacral disorders. Anal sphincter electromyography (EMG) is the most useful diagnostic test, particularly for focal sacral lesions and atypical parkinsonism. Another clinically useful method that tests the sacral segments and complements EMG is the sacral (penilo/clitoro-cavernosus) reflex. Kinesiologic EMG is useful to demonstrate detrusor sphincter dyssynergia. Somatosensory-evoked potential and motor-evoked potential studies may be useful to diagnose clinically silent central lesions. The utility of cortical somatosensory-evoked potential in bladder/urethra stimulation is limited by technical difficulties that can be partially overcome by the concomitant recording of a palmar sympathetic skin response. Sympathetic skin response recorded from the saddle region is also useful for testing the lumbosacral sympathetic system. A clinically useful neurophysiologic test for evaluating the sacral parasympathetic system is still lacking.

Physiological Electromyographic Activations Patterns of Lower Limb Muscle in Children

Kinesiological electromyography (KEMG) is an essential part of gait analysis as it supports clinicians with the objective assessment of muscular function during walking. During the gait cycle muscles are active with definite actions aimed at controlling joints in order to accomplish requirements of gait such as stability, loading acceptance, and progression. The knowledge of the development of normal EMG activity is of relevance in interpreting gait analysis data. While there is a wide literature on normative kinematics and kinetics data in children, only a few studies reported reference KEMG dataset on a paediatric population and on the maturation of gait in children. The available literature reported that the surface KEMG in children has a significant amount of variability, which should be taken into consideration when performing clinical interpretations. The KEMG timing and duration in normal children can vary with age, body height, body weight, gait velocity and stride length. Moreover, there is evidence that within session EMG variability in children aged 6-8 years is twice than that of adults. Although children in this age range can be considered to have a mature walk, variability about the mean performance continues to develop for many years and stable locomotion may be achieved despite significant variability in the muscle recruitment patterns. Further studies using accurate techniques of signal detection and analysis are required to improve our knowledge on physiological and pathological patterns of muscular activation in children.

History of the Study of Skeletal Muscle Function with Emphasis on Kinesiological Electromyography

Study of muscles started probably when someone tried to understand how he can move from A to B and executes movements at will. Knowledge was always dependent on the technology available to conduct investigation. Religious belief had a negative impact on muscle study when interfering with dissection of human corpse. During the Italian Renaissance (end of XIV th to beginning of XVI th century), study of muscles was first descriptive, based on dissection. Artists like Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and Michael Angelo (1475-1564) exaggerated the bulk of muscles. Their first concern was the influence of the volume of the superficial muscle on the surface modelling represented in their paintings and sculptures. Leonardo da Vinci multiplied the number of bundles of some muscles. Most of his representations of tendon insertions are imprecise. Leonardo da Vinci applied mechanical principles to rib, elbow kinematics and kinetics of the foot. Vesalius (1514-1574) was a medical doctor and an anatomist. His anatomical plates are remarkable because they respect most of the relationships between muscles. Then Galileo (1564-1642), Borelli (1608- 1679) and Newton (1642-1727) thought that physics and mechanical laws governed motility of animal and human body alike. Incidental discovery of electro stimulation effect on muscle in Galvani's laboratory and electric current concomitant of muscles contraction by Matteucci and Du Bois Reymond were major breakthroughs. Recording of this current was the starting point for ECG, EMG and EEG. ECG entered first in the clinic. EMG and EEG waited for cathode ray oscilloscope. The Voltaic Pile and faradic current opened the door of electrical stimulation to Duchenne de Boulogne (1806-1875). Matteucci's (1811-1868) publications inspired and stimulated Du Bois Reymond. Du Bois Reymond (1818-1889) repeated and completed his experiments on frogs. He designed a very sensitive galvanometer with which he recorded his own global EMG. EMG remained a curiosity of laboratory until Erlander (1874- 1965) and his pupil Gasser (1888-1963) improved the cathode ray oscilloscope for electrophysiological recordings. A combination of orthopaedic surgeons, engineers and physiologists in Berkeley (1945) systematically recorded EMG during gait of normal man. EMG biofeedback and phonomyography have also raised interest by clinicians. Their EMG signals processing in the time domain (full wave rectification miscalled integrated EMG) was later completed in the early '80s by computation of the root mean square on personal computers. Despite all factors minimizing the reliability of analysis based on amplitude of the EMG signals, these methods still represent the clinician's routine tool today. Since 1999, researchers have proven the benefits of muscular intensity analysis, time frequency analysis, mapping of spatio temporal activity. We deplore that the corresponding software is not available for clinicians. Multivariate methods of statistics allow the comparison of EMG patterns under pathological condition and can be helpful in differential diagnosis.

1A1-E27 表面筋電図を利用した手の動作認識と動作時の筋力推定

The use of kinesiological electromyography is established as an evaluation tool for various kinds of applied research, and surface electromyogram (SEMG) has been widely used as a control source for many systems such as in a myoelectric prosthetic hand. It is desirable to be able to control those systems with the same feeling as body movement. To do so, not only an accurate recognition of user's intended motion but detecting muscular strength is also an important factor in controlling them. The final objective of this study is set to the development of the estimation method for muscular strength that maintains the accuracy of motion recognition and this study examined the possibility of construction of such system.

Kinesiological surface electromyography in normal children: Range of normal activity and pattern analysis

To document the range of activity and patterns of normal surface kinesiological electromyography in normal children, 87 children ranging from age 3 to 18 years who were developing normally were evaluated at free walking speed. Analysis was performed on 6307 gait cycles from 11 different muscles with custom software. We devised an algorithm to do a computer-based KEMG curve pattern analysis to sort out curves that did not match the physiologic muscle activity pattern, We also devised a combined preset amplitude and statistics-based criteria to satisfactorily determine the onset/cessation of KEMG activity. The measurements of timing and duration of activity, body height and weight, body mass index, cadence, stride length, and age were obtained for statistical analysis. From the pattern recognition, the medial and lateral hamstrings, gluteus maximus and medius, and gastrocnemius muscles had the highest percentage of clinically relevant curves. In most muscle groups, The KEMG curves had an average background activity of about 11–15% of maximum amplitude. The surface KEMG curves from normal subjects have 12.7% cycles that did not match their physiologic activity pattern. The timing and duration of KEMG activity was poorly or only fairly correlated with age, body height, body weight, and body mass index. The ensemble average of the linear envelope KEMG curves of each muscle could be applied as a normal database in a clinical gait analysis laboratory focusing on pediatric patients.

Electromyographic Functional Analysis of the Lumbar Spinal Muscles with Low Back Pain

The lumbar paraspinal muscles were examined by surface electromyography (EMG) in 22 patients with low back pain and 22 healthy volunteers. Surface electrodes were placed bilaterally on the lumbar multifidus and longissimus muscles at the level of the spinous process of the third lumbar vertebra. Kinesiologic EMG was recorded, in standing resting position, during the following trunk motions: trunk forward flexion and extension, lateral bending and axial rotation. No muscular activity was observed in the full trunk flexion position in the control group. In contrast, continuous muscle activity was observed in the low back pain group. On axial rotation, an intermuscular time lag was observed at the beginning of the motion in the control group. In the low back pain group, there was no such time lag. Paraspinal muscle activities restricted lumbar range of motion, and protect from injury for movement. This suggests their role as stabilizers.

Urinary Incontinence: Sphincter Functioning from a Urological Perspective

Stress urinary incontinence (SUI) is a debilitating disorder caused by malfunctioning of the urethral sphincter. Anatomical and histological properties of the sphincter, its innervation and supporting structures are explained in relation to the closing mechanism of the bladder outlet. Urethral sphincter function is discussed from the passive concept of urethral pressure transmission to the ’hammock theory’ and the role of the pubococcygeus muscles. SUI is caused by a combination of intrinsic sphincter deficiency and urethral hypermobility. The difficult interpretation of the parameters in urodynamic investigation to assess intrinsic sphincter deficiency (ISD) and/or urethral hypermobility is discussed. Electromyography (EMG) is valuable in the assessment of the overall urethral sphincter in relation to maneuvers (kinesiological EMG) and at the level of the muscle fiber (needle EMG). The diagnostic potential of circumferential surface EMG in the urethral sphincter is reviewed in relation to the EMG features of ISD.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation to assess cortical plasticity: a critical perspective for stroke rehabilitation.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation has gained increasing visibility as an evaluative and interventional tool during the past 15 years. Within the context of rehabilitation, transcranial magnetic stimulation has been applied to differentiate excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms and to assess cortical reorganization following specific interventions. This article reviews some of the more salient features of transcranial magnetic stimulation applications relevant to stroke rehabilitation, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses in this approach. Data derived from such studies may be profoundly over-interpreted. Information is provided showing the importance of utilizing fundamental principles of electrode placement and kinesiological electromyography to more accurately reflect and interpret data emerging from transcranial magnetic stimulation mapping studies, particularly as they apply to the interpretation of cortical reorganization following application of neurorehabilitative procedures.

Science and sports: a brief history of muscle, motion and ad hoc organizations

Both the history of biolocomotion (later to become motion analysis/biomechanics) and of electrology (later kinesiological electromyography) are to be traced back to approximatively the same period in the second half of the seventeenth century. The major contributors to these emergent sciences were Swammerdam in 1658 and Borelli in 1680. Some 150 years later, electrophysiological methods were derived and motion-cinephotography was developed from their pioneering work. Subsequently, use was made of motion analysis by means of cinephotography, forming a basis for biomechanics. The work of Marey in 1873 in particular stimulated the multidisciplinary study of human activity, providing models for contemporary sports scientists working in applied settings. The link between theory and practice in motion sciences and the multidisciplinary model of Marey were the motive and the example for establishing the Working Group of Biomechanics in the 1960s. This body has gone through a series of progressive developments, culminating in the approval of the World Commission of Science and Sports as a service group of the International Council for Sport Science and Physical Education (recognized by UNESCO).

Identification of neuromuscular synergies in natural upper-arm movements

In this paper we study a natural upper-arm movement composed of sequential phases of reaching, grasping, and retrieval in the horizontal plane; in the present context, natural means that the spatiotemporal constraints active in the execution of the movement are low. The proposed method of quantitative analysis, which is applied to data obtained from healthy subjects, combines quantification of arm kinematics and kinesiologic electromyography assessment of neuromuscular control for each subject; to this aim, we propose using factor analysis. Despite the existence of a time-profile invariance of velocity traces, the identified factors may differ in the muscles that load on them; the interpretation is that different neuromuscular synergies are involved in the execution of the movement, which leads to cluster the subjects into two distinct groups. Compared with group-2 subjects, group-1 subjects present a more lateral hand path direction and a less smooth hand trajectory in their approach to the grasped object. To explain the identified factors and the kinematic findings, it is hypothesized that the feedforward motor commands involved in trajectory planning are different.

The evolution of clinical gait analysis. Part II kinematics.

Kinematics is treated as a single topic in this manuscript and the emphasis is on early history, just as it was in Part I, Electromyography. Needless to say, neither kinematics nor electromyography, nor kinetics and energy (the latter to be included in Part III) are stand-alone components of clinical gait analysis. The only reason for this selective format is that it lessens my task to be able to write about one subject at a time. One of the consequences of this arbitrary separation is that some contributors, who have enriched more than one portion of clinical gait analysis, are highlighted only in the area in which they have contributed the most. I began with Kinesiological Electromyography in Part I because the earliest stirrings of the dream of clinical gait analysis were expressed in the development of KEMG (kinesiological electromyography). The early investigators realized that very little could be said about the dynamic action of muscles without KEMG. Next, in chronological order, came kinematics. I have been an active participant and eyewitness, and take full responsibility for attempting to write an early history at a time when most of the contributors are still alive. Ordinarily, history is written much later, in order to fully grasp the significance of individual contributions in the tapestry of the whole. As stated in Part I, Electromyography, the emphasis has been placed on the early history. The application of motion analysis to sports medicine, and sports medicine functional analysis, is covered only lightly here, and this should not be interpreted as minimizing its importance. The literature on this subject is now quite voluminous and it would not be possible to cover it adequately in this manuscript. Later historical writings may differ significantly and will hopefully give more recognition to pioneers in later generations: those physicians, engineers, physical therapists and kinesiologists who are lifting the level of clinical gait analysis and directing their energies in expanding clinical directions. It is hoped that this manuscript will prompt additional manuscripts, as well as letters to the editor of Gait and Posture on the content of this review paper.

Electromyography in sports and occupational settings: an update of its limits and possibilities

The detection of the electrical signal from human and animal muscle dates from long before L. Galvani who took credit for it. J. Swammerdam had already shown the Duke of Tuscany in 1658 the mechanics of muscular contraction. Even if ‘electrology or localised electrisation’—the original terminology for electromyography (EMG)—contained the oldest biological scientific detection and measuring techniques, EMG remained a ‘supporting’ measurement with limited discriminating use, except in conjunction with other methods. All this changed when EMG became a diagnostic tool for studies of muscle weakness, fatigue, pareses, paralysis, and nerve conduction velocities, lesions of the motor unit or for neurogenic and myogenic problems. In addition to the measurement qualities, the electrical signal could be induced as functional electrical stimulation (FES), which developed as a specific rehabilitation tool. Almost in parallel and within the expanding area of EMG, a speciality developed wherein the aim was to use EMG for the study of muscular function and coordination of muscles in different movements and postures. Kinesiological EMG and therewith surface EMG can be applied in studies of normal muscle function during selected movements and postures; muscle activity in complex sports; occupational and rehabilitation movements; isometric contraction with increasing tension up to the maximal voluntary contraction, evaluation of functional anatomical muscle activity (validation of classical anatomical functions); coordination and synchronization studies (kinematic chain); specificity and efficiency of training methods; fatigue; the relationship between EMG and force; the human-machine interaction; the influence of material on muscle activity, occupational loading in relation to lower back pain and joint kinematics. Within these various applications the recording system (e.g. the signal detection, the volume conduction, signal amplification, impedance and frequency responses, the signal characteristics) and the dataprocessing system (e.g. rectification, linear envelope and normalization methods) go hand in hand with a critical appraisal of choices, limits and possibilities.

Dysfunctional voiding in women: which muscles are responsible?

To analyse the striated external urethral sphincter (EUS) and pelvic floor muscles using two different electromyography (EMG) techniques in women with dysfunctional voiding and/or urinary retention. Fifteen women (mean age 38.2 years, range 18-61) with dysfunctional voiding and/or unexplained voiding dysfunction associated with urinary retention were examined neurologically and urologically; urodynamics and kinesiological EMG of the bilateral pubococcygeal and external urethral striated sphincter muscles were obtained. In an additional neurophysiological session, concentric-needle EMG of the external urethral sphincter was performed. Kinesiological EMG recordings revealed inappropriate pelvic floor muscle activation during voiding in 11 and EUS activation in four women. Concentric needle EMG of the EUS revealed complex repetitive discharges in the four women with inappropriate urethral sphincter activation recorded by kinesiological EMG during voiding. Biofeedback training led to improvement in women with inappropriate pubococcygeal activation but not in those with urethral sphincter complex repetitive discharges. Urodynamic examinations in combination with kinesiological EMG examination of the pubococcygeal and external urethral sphincter muscles revealed two groups of women with dysfunctional voiding. Further diagnostic evaluation of such patients with concentric-needle EMG is mandatory. The differentiation of the two groups is therapeutically relevant.

Oxygen consumption: Variability assessment

Kinematics is treated as a single topic in this manuscript and the emphasis is on early history, just as it was in Part I, Electromyography. Needless to say, neither kinematics nor electromyography, nor kinetics and energy (the latter to be included in Part III) are stand-alone components of clinical gait analysis. The only reason for this selective format is that it lessens my task to be able to write about one subject at a time. One of the consequences of this arbitrary separation is that some contributors, who have enriched more than one portion of clinical gait analysis, are highlighted only in the area in which they have contributed the most. I began with Kinesiological Electromyography in Part I because the earliest stirrings of the dream of clinical gait analysis were expressed in the development of KEMG (kinesiological electromyography). The early investigators realized that very little could be said about the dynamic action of muscles without KEMG. Next, in chronological order, came kinematics. I have been an active participant and eyewitness, and take full responsibility for attempting to write an early history at a time when most of the contributors are still alive. Ordinarily, history is written much later, in order to fully grasp the significance of individual contributions in the tapestry of the whole. As stated in Part I, Electromyography, the emphasis has been placed on the early history. The application of motion analysis to sports medicine, and sports medicine functional analysis, is covered only lightly here, and this should not be interpreted as minimizing its importance. The literature on this subject is now quite voluminous and it would not be possible to cover it adequately in this manuscript. Later historical writings may differ significantly and will hopefully give more recognition to pioneers in later generations: those physicians, engineers, physical therapists and kinesiologists who are lifting the level of clinical gait analysis and directing their energies in expanding clinical directions. It is hoped that this manuscript will prompt additional manuscripts, as well as letters to the editor of Gait and Posture on the content of this review paper.

Electromyography and the study of sports movements: a review.

Within electromyography (EMG), a particular specialty has been developed wherein the aim is to use EMG for the study of muscular function and co-ordination. This area of research is usually called kinesiological EMG. The general aims of kinesiological EMG are to analyse the function and co-ordination of muscles in different movements and postures, in healthy subjects as well as in the disabled, in skilled actions as well as during training, in humans as well as in animals, under laboratory conditions as well as during daily or vocational activities. This is often done by a combination of electromyographical and kinesiological or biomechanical measurement techniques. Because there are over 400 skeletal muscles in the human body and both irregular and complex involvement of the muscles may occur in neuromuscular diseases and in voluntary occupational or sports movements, it is impossible to sample all of the muscles of the entire body during the performance of complex motor skills. In addition, the measurement of kinesiological EMG in sport and specific field circumstances, such as the track and/or soccer field, the alpine ski slope, the swimming pool and the ice rink, demands a specific technological and methodological approach, adaptable to both the field and the sport circumstances. Sport movement techniques and skills, training approaches and methods, ergonomic verification of the human-machine interaction have, amongst others, a highly specialized muscular activity in common. The knowledge of such muscular action in all its aspects, its evaluation and its feedback should allow for the optimization of movement, of sports materials, of training possibilities and, in the end, of sports performance. Drawing conclusions from a review of the EMG research of 32 sports, covering over 100 different complex skills, including methodological approaches, is an impossible task. We have attempted to set standards concerning the EMG methodology at the beginning of this review. Electromyography and sports is a vast area and a complete review is impossible, as information will be found scattered in many different journals, including those on the sports sciences, ergonomics, biomechanics, applied physiology, in different congress proceedings, and so on. Consequently, many important aspects and possibly important publications may have been omitted from this review.