Kinds Of Corruption Research Articles

Duty, Diligence and Disasters: Detailing Everyday Practices of Malawian Civil Servants in the Climate Crisis

African civil servants are often portrayed as lacking capacity, deeply entangled in patronage networks, embroiled in all kinds of corruption and largely indifferent to their jobs and the plight of their fellow citizens. Perceptions of Malawian civil servants have been no exception to this stereotype and find fertile ground in numerous recent governance scandals, including the misuse of COVID-19 funds. In this paper, I suggest that this overarching focus on failure has obscured and trivialised important dimensions of civil servants’ work that are central to how they perform their duties. Drawing on 18 months of ethnographic fieldwork with civil servants working with the Department of Disaster Management Affairs in relief interventions after Cyclone Idai (2019) and Cyclone Freddy (2023), I detail the ways in which they understood their professional responsibilities and their efforts to balance different (moral) obligations they experienced in relation to their job. Taking seriously my interlocutors’ suggestion that one needs ‘a special heart’ in their line of work, I argue that they draw on a sense of duty to fulfil their duties. This becomes more visible during times of emergency response and disasters but is always present. I ultimately suggest that shifting the focus from failure to civil servants’ sense of duty allows for a more nuanced understanding of the Malawi state.

Corruption in the Pharmaceutical Sector Diagnosing the Challenges

Corruption inside the pharmaceutical industry is a pervasive and complicated problem that poses giant challenges to healthcare structures, public welfare, and ethical requirements. This abstract delves into the prognosis of the challenges posed by corruption in the pharmaceutical industry. The pharmaceutical sector performs a vital function in promoting international fitness by growing, generating, and distributing life-saving medicines. However, the arena is plagued by various kinds of corruption, such as bribery, fraud, kickbacks, and undue influence on regulatory procedures. This corruption leads to distorted priorities, compromised drug satisfaction, decreased access to important drug treatments, and expanded healthcare costs. One challenge is the complex web of relationships among pharmaceutical corporations, healthcare professionals, and regulatory governments. These relationships, while regularly critical for understanding trade and innovation, may be exploited for corrupt practices that prioritize income over patient well-being. Furthermore, inadequate regulation and susceptible enforcement mechanisms create an environment where corrupt activities can flourish

The Corruption Phenomenon: A Short Introduction to the World

The aim of this article is to present the semantics of the corruption phenomenon in order to establish corruption as a multidimensional phenomenon which is directly linked with various fields of knowledge. In this article, the definition of corruption is presented, the meaning of a form of corruption is analyzed along with its physical and its immaterial forms, as well as the impact of its repercussions. The article concludes with the presentation of the code of the forms of corruption, as well as the crucial matter of understanding scientific application of the calculation indexes of the repercussions of the forms of the corruption phenomenon. The aim of this article is binary. On the one hand, a first exposure to the subject so as the scholar can understand the corruption phenomenon as a whole, through a scientific approach. On the other hand, to aid a member of the administration to better understand the scientific methodology in order to shape their own system of ideas and suggestions towards the crucial issue of dealing with different kinds of corruption in the specific framework in which the person operates.

The Warming Conflict: Climate Change and its Impacts on Afghanistan’s Ongoing Conflicts

There might be various and several reasons for the conflicts in Afghanistan, such as foreign political interventions, illiteracy, poverty, the geography of the country, ethnic and linguistic diversity, social injustice, various kinds of corruption, and generally a lack of rule of law. Climate change does not seem to be a direct factor in the conflicts in Afghanistan, but it is one of the main indirect factors in the conflicts. The link between climate change and conflicts in Afghanistan has not been the focus of studies yet, so little literature is found in the area. However, the intersection of climate change and conflict in Afghanistan presents a critical area of study, as environmental stressors exacerbate the already volatile socio-political landscape. Looking at the importance of the link between climate change and unresolved conflicts in Afghanistan, a literature review was done to find out how these two link to each other. Particularly, this paper explores the multifaceted impacts of climate change on Afghanistan's ongoing conflict, analyzing how rising temperatures, unpredictable precipitation, and extreme weather events contribute to resource scarcity and displacement, thereby fueling tensions and violence. Drawing on recent environmental data, conflict analysis, and case studies, the paper argues that climate change acts as a threat multiplier, intensifying competition over natural resources, undermining livelihoods, and complicating peacebuilding efforts. The findings underscore the urgency of integrating climate adaptation strategies into conflict resolution and development programs to foster long-term stability and resilience in Afghanistan. The paper concludes with policy recommendations for national and international stakeholders to address the nexus of climate change and conflict, emphasizing the need for collaborative, cross-sectoral approaches to mitigate risks and capitalize on opportunities for peace.

Eğitim Kurumlarında Görülen Kayırmacılık Türleri ve Bunun Çalışan Performansına Etkilerinin İncelenmesi

Nepotism, which is also expressed with concepts such as favor and favor, which is common in every institution in the working life of today's society; It also means that the concepts of merit, equality and rights are not accepted. People are included in the staff because of their relationships with other people. It is a kind of corruption that shakes the integrity of the organization, supports people and is against ethical rules. It can be said that if a person's life is made much easier than others, even though he does not deserve it, there is favoritism. It is unethical behavior, especially in matters such as salary, acceptance and promotion. The favoritism of school administrators negatively affects teachers' working efficiently in the organization. Considering the extent to which teachers are affected by favoritism and how this is reflected in their job performance, important points such as alienation from work, wanting to quit, damaging the sense of belonging to the institution, and decrease in performance and willingness to work are striking. There is a general opinion that especially school administrators/principals favor more in task sharing. When the literature is examined, when we look at the generalization, this situation makes the teachers who see favoritism feel happy and valuable in the first place. However, after the other members of the organization realize this situation, individuals are exposed to marginalization and isolation. From the point of view of the individual, they feel obliged to do extra work that they are not responsible for, due to the debt of gratitude and embarrassment to the manager who displays a favourite. Keywords: Educational Institutions, Types of Nepotism, Performance

Eğitim Yönetiminde Kayırmacılığın Kavramsal Çerçevesi, Nedenleri ve Sonuçları

In this study, the conceptual framework, causes and consequences of nepotism in educational management will be emphasized. In the modern period, nepotistic behaviors are frequently encountered in almost many organizations in the public and private sectors. This is because individuals do not follow ethical rules. Because, in particular, managers should have internalized all these rules. Otherwise, people in the administration may come to the conclusion that these attitudes are very normal. Nepotism, expressed by concepts such as favoritism, torpil, which is widely seen in every institution in working life in our current social structure as well as in modern societies, also means that the concepts of merit, equality, rights are not accepted. People are given a place in the staff because of their relationships with other people. It is a kind of corruption that undermines the integrity of the organization, backs up people and violates the ethical rules. Although he does not deserve it, if a person's life is made much easier than others, it can be said that there is favoritism. These are unethical behaviors, especially in matters such as salary cost, job acceptance and promotion. Nepotistic attitudes of school administrators negatively affect the efficient work of teachers in the organization. Key Words: Education Management, School, Nepotism

Ways to Return to Allah in the Exhibition of the Qur’an - An Objective Study


 
 
 
 ABSTRACT
 
 The subject of research which concerns the sciences of the Qur’an and its interpretation is entitled "Methods of returning to Allah in the Qur’anic exhibition - an objective study".
 The research includes the verses ending with (Perhaps they return) which in their content and meanings' connotations is a call for humanity to give up disobedience, sins and all kinds of corruption, and to return to Almighty Allah. These verses follow the style of Herald and reward at times and in the manner of warning and torment at other times. Some people knew, concerned and believed, while some other condemned and insisted and disbelieved, so Allah tormented them, and ended their lives with the end of evil. He tormented them in their lives with hard torment which though hard but still non- comparable in severity and cruelty with that of the Hereafter.
 I present this study as a reminder and consideration for me and for others, hoping the mercy and pardon of Allah. Thus, I put a research plan commensurate with the meanings of the verses and their connotations that are related to the research. The plan included a preview, two chapters, and then reaching a set of results, which show the importance of the research, and their benefits.
 
 
 

The Prevention of Bribery in Government Agencies: The Role of Big Data and Whistle-blowing Systems

Bribery has become the kind of corruption with the highest annual incidence rate. Therefore, the hunt for solutions to these problems must continue. Consequently, this research must be conducted. The objective is to examine how big data and the whistle-blowing system affect the prevention of bribery. This investigation was conducted utilizing a quantitative methodology. 191 auditors from the Financial and Development Supervisory Agency (BPKP), the Supreme Audit Agency (BPK), and the Indonesian Government Inspectorate were surveyed via distributing questionnaires. This research employs structural equation modeling (SEM) with the assistance of the smartPLS application for statistical testing. Both big data and the whistle-blowing system have proven to have a positive impact on bribery prevention, according to the findings of this study.

Robust Object Detection Against Multi-Type Corruption Without Catastrophic Forgetting During Adversarial Training Under Harsh Autonomous-Driving Environments

It is important to build robust object detector (ROD) in real-world applications because snow, rain, fog, motion blur, and various kinds of corruption can occur in autonomous-driving environments. Adversarial training (AT) is one of the best solutions to build a robust deep neural network. However, applying AT has a risk of sacrificing clean performance, even though robustness is improved, which is called catastrophic forgetting (CF). In particular, CF in an autonomous-driving environment is more challenging for two reasons. The first is CF is worsened due to various types of corruption. The second is the degradation of clean performance can lead to a risk of overall performance degradation because more than 60% of the total data is clean (based on Bdd100k). Therefore, we propose an ROD framework to ensure not only robustness against corruption but also prevent degradation of clean performance, despite the two aforementioned difficulties. The ROD framework utilizes a training methodology with an adversarial defense module (ADM) based on the intermediate representative feature (IRF) concept. This framework can improve robustness without CF under multi-corruption environments. In this paper, we report on three main achievements. The first is that the mean performance under corruption (mPC) of RetinaNet was improved by 32.14% with an mAP degradation of only 0.2%, based on COCO 2017. The second is that our method achieved state-of-the art results with 86.8% relative performance under corruption (rPC) compared to Hybrid Task Cascades with 64.6% rPC on the ROD benchmark. The third is that our ROD methodology achieved 32.29% and 31.54% mPC at 15-type seen corruption and four-type unseen corruption, respectively. The ROD framework is also applied to an autonomous-driving domain showing that it operates well, even under harsh environments in the Bdd100k dataset.

DeepMoM: Robust Deep Learning With Median-of-Means

Data used in deep learning is notoriously problematic. For example, data are usually combined from diverse sources, rarely cleaned and vetted thoroughly, and sometimes corrupted on purpose. Intentional corruption that targets the weak spots of algorithms has been studied extensively under the label of “adversarial attacks.” In contrast, the arguably much more common case of corruption that reflects the limited quality of data has been studied much less. Such “random” corruptions are due to measurement errors, unreliable sources, convenience sampling, and so forth. These kinds of corruption are common in deep learning, because data are rarely collected according to strict protocols—in strong contrast to the formalized data collection in some parts of classical statistics. This article concerns such corruption. We introduce an approach motivated by very recent insights into median-of-means and Le Cam’s principle, we show that the approach can be readily implemented, and we demonstrate that it performs very well in practice. In conclusion, we believe that our approach is a very promising alternative to standard parameter training based on least-squares and cross-entropy loss.

Stolen Wages, Corruption, and Selective Application of the Law: Is APUNCAC a Solution?

APUNCAC is a draft international convention designed to address systemic corruption, strengthening UNCAC’s provisions and adding mechanisms to make it more effective. ‘Corruption’ includes public officials abusing their powers. This article addresses an especially insidious form: when laws are created and applied to deny equal protection under the law. Ruling elites control the executive and parliament, to pass laws that selectively target and disadvantage a segment of the population. Our empirical data comes from a historical case, massive government-sanctioned wage theft from Western Australian Aboriginal workers between 1901 and 1972. We use these data to analyse how this kind of corruption works in practice, to evaluate APUNCAC’s measures and strategies, to see what specific measures might be used or modified, and where APUNCAC might need supplementing. We argue that Article 4(3) could have a major impact, especially supported by other Articles and processes, such as dedicated independent courts and strategic engagement with local courts. We evaluate two scenarios: The first scenario is prospective, assuming that APUNCAC is adopted. We evaluate the possible impact of APUNCAC in deterring future corruption involving selective application of the law. The second scenario is retrospective. We evaluate the possible support that APUNCAC might provide regarding court actions that seek redress for potential litigants, such as WA Aboriginal people who were injured in the past.

Cameroon’s special criminal court: an appraisal of its first decade of existence

PurposeIn total, 10 years since the establishment of the Special Criminal Court (SCC) in Cameroon to deal with a specific kind of corruption, one may wonder whether any achievements have been made so far in fulfilling its mandate and also assuaging the tense and toxic perception that the Court was established as an arsenal to witch-hunt political opponents. This study aims to look into the work done so far in this regard, and makes an assessment as to whether any accomplishments have been made in the first decade of its establishment.Design/methodology/approachThis paper takes an evidence-based approach in seeking answers to what accomplishments, if any, have been made by the Court, explores the notion of corruption within Cameroon’s legislative and institutional landscape prior to the establishment of the Court and looks into the profiles of those who have been indicted by the SCC for that crime; the amounts that were misappropriated and for which they were convicted; the sentences imposed. It identifies some outstanding cases: where the amounts misappropriated exceeded a threshold and asks the question of what made it possible for these individuals to misappropriate such huge sums of money?FindingsThe inconsistencies and irrationality in the sentencing are a few findings made. Added to those is the timing of the establishment of the Court which, as most have perceived, is a political witch-hunting aimed at bringing credibility to a failed regime, as well as deal with a few political “irresponsibles” who were once the president’s buddies.Research limitations/implicationsThis research unravels key insights into the functioning of the SCC. It advances the knowledge thereon and adds to the literature on corruption in Cameroon.Practical implicationsThe establishment of the SCC is commendable. However, as it deals with but a particular kind of corruption, it might be necessary to rethink the need of additional institutional mechanisms that have specialized jurisdiction to deal with the different kinds of corruption in Cameroon.Social implicationsThe paper highlights the entrenched nature of corruption in the social fabrics of Cameroonian society, and exposes the need for a much holistic approach in dealing with corruption, as the SCC offers but one institutional mechanism toward that direction.Originality/valueThis paper, given the issues discussed therein, and considering the dearth of literature on the topic, advances the literature on the SCC in particular and the problem of endemic corruption in Cameroon in general.

Upper Nile University the Effect of Corruption on Governance andEconomic Developmentin South Sudan: A Case of Juba County

This study aim on establishing the impact of corruption and governance and economic development in Juba county, Jubek state South Sudan.The objectives of the study are; to assess the relationship between Corruption and Governance, to assess the relationship between Corruption and Economic Development and to analyse the factor structure for Corruption and governance on Economic development. The study employed a cross sectional and descriptive design while using qualitative and quantitative approaches. The study population will be 150 selected using simple random sampling techniques. The sample size determination was made using Krejcie and Morgan Table (1970) formula. The sample size is 108. The data will analyze using Statistical package for social scientists (SPSS 20). Corruption is the main threat to Governance and Economic Development in the Republic of South Sudan. ‘Good governance entails accountability, transparency, enhanced public participation in decision making, strengthened public sector and civil society institutions and greater adherence to the rule of law. Corruption results in grave violations of socio-economic rights, condemns people to extreme levels of poverty and often leads to social unrest. Curbing corruption is therefore critical to the achievement of good governance and the rule of law in many counties such as Juba County, Jubek State, and South Sudan. Although most legal systems in East Africa prohibit corruption, the practice is significantly different. The Government of South Sudan is working hard to make the citizens improve their standard of living through the formation of South Sudan Anti-corruption commission to eradicate corruption in the country. The rule of law is also enforced on citizens who are embezzling public finance for personal gain. Those who involved in fraud and political corruption or any kind of corruption are brought to justice.Governance is an indeterminate term used in the international development literature to describe how public institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources. Governance is ‘the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented)’ Governance is always seen when Local elections are conducted freely and fairly, according to international standards and national legislation, and without any fraud. Governance has eight major elements. E.g.,it is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitableand inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into accountand that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society. Economic development can be defined as efforts that seek to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for a community by creating and/or retaining jobs and supporting or growing incomes and the tax base. Economic development is the process by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of its people. The term has been used frequently by economists, politicians, and others in the 20th and 21st centuries. Economic development typically involves improvements in a variety of indicators such as literacy rates, life expectancy, and poverty rates. GDP does not take into account other aspects such as leisure time, environmental quality, interracial and united international peace, freedom, or social justice; alternative measures of economic well-being have been proposed.

La sextorsión como nueva modalidad de corrupción en el servicio público

Los actos de corrupción, por el simple hecho de existir, generan descontento en la sociedad por el abuso que hacen los servidores públicos del poder que se les otorga. El hecho de tomar ventaja de una posición jerárquica para obtener un beneficio particular representa una flagrante violación a los valores éticos y morales, sin dejar pasar por alto que se encuentran tipificados como ilícitos en la ley. Si este fenómeno, que ya de por sí, afecta a la sociedad de muy diversas maneras, cuando se le agrega un nuevo elemento como lo es el solicitar favores sexuales a cambio de un servicio público, no sólo se limita ya a un acto de corrupción de los que ampliamente se han abordado en la literatura especializada, sino que se trata de una corrupción con perspectiva de género y que afecta de manera específica y diferente a éste. No obstante que la sextorsión actualmente se relaciona con la difusión de imágenes y videos de índole sexual para generar perjuicio a una persona, este artículo tiene como objetivo exponer, a través de un análisis documental de artículos científicos, reportes de investigación de instancias internacionales y notas periodísticas una modalidad de la sextorsión diferente a la que se contempla actualmente, a fin de ofrecer una visión más amplia de este fenómeno, y generar políticas públicas que permitan avanzar en el tema en Tamaulipas.

The Significance of Islamic Moral Education in Nigeria for National Advancement

The training of child's personality towards the best moral and social conduct and encouraging him through this training to grow up as a good, self-disciplined, responsible and law-abiding citizen who values his nation and is ready to safeguard the interest of his society, is one of the significances of Islamic Moral Education. To provide this moral training is therefore relevant to the present period when all kinds of corruption and vices like wine-drinking, adultery and fornication, theft and armed robbery, kidnapping and banditry, fraud, bribery, cheating in marketing and devouring of people's wealth without their consent pervade our society. No nation can have meaningful advancement without controlling such immoral and social vices. In view of this therefore, this paper is intended to discuss on the significance of Islamic Moral Education in Nigeria for National Advancement.

Do Men and Women Perceive Corruption Differently? Gender Differences in Perception of Need and Greed Corruption

Do men and women perceive corruption differently? While evidence suggest that there is a strong link between gender and corruption, and that gender differences can at least partly be derived from men and women having different attitudes towards corruption, most studies to date focus on gender differences in perceptions of the scale or severity of the corruption in general, rather than its different forms. However, we argue that factors such as role socialization, social status and life experiences may make men and women perceive different kinds of corruption. Drawing on the distinction between ‘need’ and ‘greed’ corruption, we suggest that women are more likely than men to perceive that corruption is driven by need rather than greed. In particular, women may be more likely to be exposed to need corruption because of their greater care taking responsibilities both in the professional and private sphere, and, much in line with marginalization theory, have easier access to forms of corruption that are less dependent upon embeddedness in collusive networks. Using unique survey data, we show that women and men indeed differ in their perceptions of need vs. greed, and that women perceive more need corruption, while men perceive more greed corruption. This suggests that perceptions of different forms of corruption are indeed gendered and we discuss the implication of this for anti-corruption policy.

Personal Corruption & Corrupting Laws: Montesquieu’s Twofold Theory of Corruption

Traditional views tend to identify the problem of corruption in the dishonesty of public officials. The main purpose of the research is to recover Montesquieu’s view of corruption and show that there are at least two different causes of corrupt behaviors. In The Spirit of Laws, Montesquieu distinguishes “two kinds of corruption: one, when the people do not observe the laws, the other when they are corrupted by the laws; the latter is an incurable ill because it lies in the remedy itself.” Recent studies about Montesquieu’s account of corruption do not pay much attention to this distinction. This paper unpacks the two kinds of corruption. The first kind tracks a problem of individuals who use their public office for private gain. The second track is the deficiency of the laws that contradict social behaviors and, therefore, are obeyed exclusively out of fear and violated whenever possible. The distinction is relevant to the anti-corruption literature because it implies two different ways to eradicate corruption. Corruption as a problem of individuals can be solved with better enforcement of the law: improving monitoring systems, better rewards for honesty, or higher punishments. Personal corruption can be dealt with what Celine Spector calls “a legislative arsenal.” However, improving enforcement mechanisms is unlikely to solve the problem in corrupting laws, given that people violate the law due to the high standards that it imposes on them. The solution for the second kind of corruption is to remove or modify the corrupting law. Montesquieu promoted the separation of powers and the spirit of moderation in the legislators to avoid corrupting laws. The result of this investigation is the importance of distinguishing between the situations in which more coercion can eradicate corruption and those in which more force against corruption leads to despotism. Keywords: Corruption, Legislation, Moderation, Montesquieu, Separation of Powers, Spirit of the Laws.

العقيدة الصحيحة وأثرها على سلوك الفرد والمجتمع بين التأصيل والمعاصرة: دراسة وصفية

مرَ على الأمة الإسلامية حين من الدهر لم يستطيعوا حماية أفكارهم وعقولهم بسبب انتشار كثير من الفساد في القيم والأخلاق والموازين وكذلك التصورات والاعتقادات الدينية الجاهلية التي تحمل في داخلها الخرافات والأوهام والخيالات، ناهيك عن الأنظمة والقوانين الظالمة. هدفت هذه الدراسة لبيان أثر العقيدة على سلوك الفرد كي يستطيع الوقوف بوجه أعداء الإسلام الذين استطاعوا بدهاء عظيم ومكر كبير أن يحققوا ما يريدون من تغيير في سلوك الفرد المسلم فجاءوا بعناوين براقة ملفتة للأنظار مثل (الحضارة والمدنية، والتقدم والتطور، والانطلاق والتحرر، وتحطيم الأغلال). فكان للعقيدة أثرها الواضح في التصدي لمثل هذه العناوين البراقة، وأثرها أيضًا في بناء السلوك القويم للفرد من أجل بناء مجتمع واعي ومثقف على أصول شرعية صحيحة، وإيقاظ الوازع الأخلاقي في داخل الفرد والمجتمع؛ مما يعدُّ في حقيقته استكمالاً لبناء الضمير الإنساني، أو إسهامًا مباشرًا في تحقيق الشخصية.

Human Corruption as The Effect of Modern Technology as Represented in Okky Madasari's "The Last Crowd"

Modern technology plays big roles in influencing human life, especially millenial generation. However , it can create human corruption due to its function abuse. The objectives of this study are: 1) to explain how human corruption is described in Okky Madasari’s The Last Crowd and 2) to explain how the modern technology creates human corruption as described in Okky Madasari’s The Last Crowd. The methodology used in this study was descriptive-qualitative. This study analyzed the novel using Levi Strauss’ theory. There were two objects of the study, namely material object which was The Last Crowd novel and formal object from the analysis of the novel using Levi Strauss’ theory. The results of the study are as follows: 1) Human Corruption was described in Okky Madasari’s The Last Crowd through how the characters in the novel use modern technology unwise until it has a bad effect. Human corruption is divided into three kinds of corruption; corruption in time, corruption in function and corruption in behavior. 2) Human Corruption is created due to the influence of technology towards Jayanegara, which triggers him to be trapped in it. It shows when he decides to make a pseudo-identity for being a winner and a revenger.
 
 Keywords: Human Corruption; Modern Technology; Structuralism

“DISMEMBERING THE HUMAN CHARACTER”: ADAM FERGUSON’S CONCEPTION OF CORRUPTION

Abstract:This essay lays out three kinds of corruption—personal, structural, and civic—stressing the differences among these phenomena. It then explores civic corruption via the work of the eighteenth-century Scottish thinker Adam Ferguson. Civic corruption occurs when the citizens of a republic lose interest in defending their shared institutions, and pursue their private wealth alone; avoiding it, according to Ferguson, requires placing limits on these private pursuits and getting citizens to participate in the public realm instead. By way of a comparison with Ferguson’s contemporary and friend Adam Smith—who agreed with Ferguson on many issues, although not on what was corrupting about the acquisition of wealth—the essay argues that Ferguson, for all his emphasis on participatory government, was a liberal, not a collectivist. With that in mind, the essay endorses many of Ferguson’s suggestions from a liberal perspective, and argues that, to preserve liberal republics, it is often necessary to expand what governments do, so as to maintain the commitment of citizens to their public institutions. This prescriptive implication brings out sharply how civic corruption differs from personal corruption, which may best be limited by shrinking the role of government, rather than expanding it.