Kinds Of Air Research Articles

Design optimization of Airless Tyre - Numerical Approach

The airless tire is a solitary unit supplanting the pneumatic tire, haggle get together. It replaces all the segments of a normal outspread tire and is included an inflexible center point, associated with a shear band by methods for adaptable, deformable polyurethane spokes and a track band, all working as a solitary unit. An airless tire is a singular unit overriding the pneumatic tire, in getting get together. The problem in the pneumatic tyre is life of the tyre is less, danger of explosion, maintenance cost is high, pressure monitoring is required. It replaces all of the fragments of an ordinary extended tire and is contained an unyielding focus point, related with a shear band by strategies for versatile, deformable polyurethane spokes and a track band, all filling in as a singular unit. In this paper, air less tire model is presented with a substitution of common elastic materials instead of engineered elastic in track and polyester instead of nylon in body. The development and material investigation of different kinds of air less tire is finished by contrasting and pneumatic tire. The design of the Airless tyres structures is done in solidworks. A concise underlying investigation has been done on spokes of airless tire and broke down by ANSYS programming. Investigation has been completed on different structures like Spokes, triangular and custom structure of circular and Hexagon with an applied load of 1000N. Correlation study has been completed among different structures with various materials and it study shows that tire with round structure with engineered materials gives less twisting contrasted with other structure.

Oh Excellent Air Bag: Under the Influence of Nitrous Oxide, 1799–1920

Oh Excellent Air Bag presents a curated collection of 12 scientific and popular works about nitrous oxide, spanning 1799 to 1920. Voyeuristic readers will enjoy reading the frequently explicit experiences of inhaling nobles. Readers who prefer a coherent history with a focus on characters, causes, and effects may be less satisfied. That reader will savor the historian Mike Jay’s engaging introduction, but will be disappointed that each work does not have its own commentary.The story of nitrous oxide began when English chemist and political agitator Joseph Priestly (1733 to 1804), discovered “dephlogisticated nitrous air” and described it in Volume I of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air in 1774.1 A dephlogisticated substance meant that it had undergone combustion and had released an imaginary substance called phlogiston.In 1798, English chemist and polymath Sir Humphry Davy (1778 to 1829) started working at the Pneumatic Institution founded by English physician Thomas Beddoes (1760 to 1808). Davy’s research led to the 580-page monograph, Researchers, Chemical and Philosophical: Chiefly Concerning Nitrous Oxide, or Dephlogisticated Nitrous Air, and its Respiration, published in 1880.2 Although Oh Excellent Air Bag includes well-chosen content from the monograph, the enthusiast may want to explore the rich corpus.At the end of the day at the Pneumatic Institution, patients, friends, and colleagues would pass around the green silk bag of nitrous oxide. The book has monograph excerpts in which Davy’s “crew” described their experiences with nitrous oxide. Glitterati included Robert Southey, Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom from 1813 to 1843; the author Samuel Taylor Coleridge; and Peter Roget, British physician and author of the eponymous thesaurus. These experiences quickly led to ubiquitous “laughing gas parties” and traveling laughing gas shows.An excerpt of Benjamin Paul Blood’s 37-page pamphlet published in 1874, The Anesthetic Revelation and the Gist of Philosophy,3 displays a spiritually elevated use of nitrous oxide. Blood “felt a powerful conviction that the secret of life had been briefly and tantalizingly laid bare under the influence.” Reminiscent of psychologist and LSD advocate Timothy Leary, Blood extols the depth of philosophical understanding available only in an altered state.Written in 1914 after a personal experience, the short one-act play “OM! OM! OM! OM! OM! OM! OM!” describes a surgeon’s experience of having a nitrous oxide anesthetic for surgery. It offers an accurate description of contemporary anesthetic practice, including the use of the patient’s finger movement to monitor anesthetic depth, the anesthetist’s finger on the pulse to monitor the circulation, the surgeon opining on anesthetic techniques, and the harms of a poor machine check. Production pressure is seen through the surgeon muttering about the delay while the anesthetist resuscitates the patient. The reader trying to diagnose the anesthetic problems will appreciate the imprecision of the available physiologic data.Published in 1920, “The Chair of Metaphysics” is a sublime treatise on the metaphysics of anesthesia, the doctor-patient relationship, and the view of a romantic about the anesthetic progress of using local anesthetic instead of nitrous oxide for tooth removal.Larger themes are expressed in the book. A section from Davy’s monograph faithfully describes his addictive behavior from his self-experimentation with nitrous oxide. Acknowledging that he inhaled nitrous oxide three to five times a week to produce “a highly pleasurable thrilling,” Davy characterized his failing health due to the “constant labor of experimenting.” He went away for 33 days and was abstinent, but reunited with nitrous oxide upon his return.The history of ethically complex self-experimentation includes researchers who infected themselves to study diseases and researchers who took study drugs to assess their effects. Addiction from self-experimentation is well known in medicine, most famously in the American surgeon William Halsted, who became addicted to cocaine after self-experimentation, and then addicted to the morphine used to treat his cocaine addiction.Readers may wonder why nitrous oxide was not used for anesthetic purposes for many years, especially because Davy suggested in the monograph that nitrous oxide could be used to relieve the pain of surgery. Understanding this delay may help readers participate in more recent interplays of society and medicine, such a stem cell use, physician aid-in-dying, and xenotransplantation. For those interested, David A. E. Shephard, anesthesia historian and author of the fine book From Craft to Specialty: A Medical and Social History of Anesthesia and Its Changing Role in Health Care, analyzed why the social and medical climates were not right for the concept of surgical anesthesia.4In the end, this well-chosen collection explores the charm of nitrous oxide with vibrancy, clarity, and honesty. For readers who want to learn more about the societal and medical roles of nitrous oxide, I suggest starting with the mendacious industry of painless dental extractions. Charlatans administrated 100% nitrous oxide to capture this lucrative business, even after it became clear that its use caused hypoxic brain damage leading to “insanity.”5

The pollen of metaphor: Box, cage, and trap as containment in the eighteenth century

This article uses the concept of “the pollen of metaphor” to discuss three forms of non-human animal containment in the eighteenth century: François Huber's Leaf or Book Hive bee box first described in his Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles (1792, English translation 1806), Sarah Trimmer's bird cages in her didactic children's book, Fabulous Histories; Or, The Story of the Robins (1786), and a mouse trap in Anna Letitia Barbauld’s 1773 poem, “The Mouse's Petition, found in the trap where he had been confined all night by Dr. Priestley, for the sake of making experiments with different kinds of air.” All three works highlight the eighteenth-century art of observation. The inherent commitment to relationships in the observation process suggests that interpreting ocular evidence involves “plausible relations,” metaphor and/or “productive analogy.” The article teases out subtle differences between the ways that each author uses containments and concludes that while Huber seeks to circumscribe non-human animal behavior within the bounds of ‘reasonable’ animal husbandry to better serve human needs, Trimmer goes further to connect ‘appropriate’ non-human animal containment to moral strictures governing humans. Barbauld's intervention using a literate, speaking animal subject confronts such moral governance to argue for equal rights based on principles of true equality rather than what is observed to be ‘reasonable’ and/or ‘moral.’

Gases, God and the balance of nature: a commentary on Priestley (1772) ‘Observations on different kinds of air’

Historians of chemistry usually associate the eighteenth century with the Chemical Revolution, but it could just as readily be called ‘the century of gases’ (or ‘airs’, as they were called in the eighteenth century). In the early part of the century, the British pneumatic chemists struggled to replace the traditional notion ‘Air’, understood as an inert chemical element, with the concept of ‘air’, regarded as the third state of matter, encompassing a wide variety of chemical species. These developments constituted a necessary condition for the Chemical Revolution, which occurred in the latter part of the century. In ‘Observations’, Priestley took pneumatic chemistry to a new level, with the discovery of eight simple inorganic gases. Motivated by his belief in a benevolent God and a pious utilitarianism, Priestly explored the role of the atmosphere in the balance of nature and the politics of the state, which he linked to the movement of Rational Dissent. He styled himself an ‘aerial philosopher’ to signal the interdisciplinary nature of his inquiries, which he regarded not as a branch of ordinary chemistry, but as a mode of thought that encompassed physics, chemistry and natural theology. Priestley saw it as a source of principles and secrets of nature more extensive than that of ‘gravity itself’. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.

The Rise and Fall of Nitrous Air Eudiometry: Enlightenment Ideals, Embodied Skills, and the Conflicts of Experimental Philosophy

Chemistry has not yet unveiled any of the numerous mysteries of the insalubrity of the air; it has only taught us, that we are ignorant of things, with which fifteen years ago we believed we were acquainted, thanks the dreams of ancient eudiometry.Alexander Humboldt, Personal narrative of travels the equinoctial regions of the new continent, during the years 1799-1804.'1. INTRODUCTIONIn his 1772 article Observations on different kinds of for which he was awarded the Copley Medal the following year,2 Joseph Priestley noted that of the most conspicuous properties of [nitrous air] is the great diminution of any of common with which it is mixed. The contraction in aerial volume was accompanied by pungent odours, a turbid red, or deep orange colour, and a considerable heat. He confessed his surprise at quantity of air, which, it were, devours a of another kind of ... and yet is so far from gaining any addition its bulk, that it is considerably diminished by it.3 Priestley never lost tone of bewilderment. In the last 1790 edition of his Experiments and observations on different kinds of air, which was designed to new model the whole work, [rather] than reprint the former volumes, the description of the experiment was faithfully reproduced. Yet one of the major changes the chapter on nitrous in edition can be gleaned from its opening section, now retided Of nitrous Air the Test of the of respirable Air.4 Even though the substance of the section remained largely unchanged, which had been mentioned in former editions part of a train of observations, had now been singled out an independent subject. Between 1772 and 1790 the use of nitrous (nitric oxide) as the Test of the Purity of and the atmosphere had evolved into an independent research programme that came be known eudiometry - an influential and controversial field of inquiry at the intersection of chemical, medical, experimental, and technological concerns. Following an extraordinary ascent in popularity, which peaked around the turn of the decade, nitrous eudiometry became increasingly controversial through the 1780s, until it was all but abandoned in the 1790s. In what follows I chart the climactic rise and demise of instrument and technology, while assessing the reasons for its remarkable success and failure, which I link Enlightenment ideals like social and scientific control through quantification, on the one hand, and various challenges in oentemporary experimental philosophy and practice, on the other.The first volume of Fredrick Accum's System oftheoretical and practical chemistry (1803),5 one of the major chemistry textbooks appear in the post-Lavoisierian era, features chapters on the history of geology, physical attraction, chemical affinities, and substances like sulphur, diamond, and phosphorus. Most of the book, however, is dedicated pneumatic chemistry: discussions on heat (caloric), light, and various gases. The better part of the chapter on air is taken up by an entry on eudiometry, or the methods of ascertaining the purity of atmospheric air. Accum presented in section seven different eudiometers, which he distinguished by the names of their inventors and listed according an approximate chronological order, from Priesdey, through Scheele, De Marti, Humboldt, Seguin and Berthollet, Davy.6 In reference Priestley's pioneering nitrous eudiometer Accum concluded that this method of analyzing by means of nitrous gas is liable errors. When compared the other six instruments,7 Priestley's eudiometer was depicted the most problematic and much the least accurate.Accum's view was not singular; other authors expressed similar views. Arthur Aikin's Dictionary of mineralogy and chemistry (1807), for example, described in detail the many anomalies and uncertainties that now attend [the eudiometer's] use. …

A Comedy of Scientific Errors

William Shakespeare may well have foreshadowed the modern television sitcom. His comic misadventures were expertly crafted. In A Comedy of Errors , for example, twins (with twin servants), each separated at birth, converge unbeknownst to each other in the same town. Mistaken identity leads to miscommunication. More mistaken identity follows, with more misdelivered messages and yet more misinterpretations. Hilarious consequences ensue. It is a stock comedic formula in modern entertainment. A character first makes an unintentional error. Then ironically, in trying to correct it, things only get laughably worse. Science, we imagine, is safeguarded against such embarrassing episodes. In the lore of scientists, echoed among teachers, science is “self-correcting.” Replication, in particular, ensures that errors are exposed for what they are. Research promptly returns to its fruitful trajectory. Serious stuff, science. But just such a case of compounded error occurred in science in the late 18th century. Joseph Priestley discovered that plants can restore the “goodness” of air that had been fouled by animals or combustion. But others could not replicate his results. Even Priestley himself. After further work, Priestley attributed the observed effect to a different cause – only to find later that the new conclusion itself was mistaken! For us now, the story seems amusing, but it is also nonetheless instructive. The case invites us to reconsider the sacred bovine that science is “self-correcting,” especially due to failures of replication. Indeed, this reassessment leads us deeper into reflecting on our romantic idealizations of science, an enduring legacy of Priestley’s Enlightenment period, centuries ago. The story begins in the early 1770s, in Leeds, England. Joseph Priestley – minister, avid experimentalist, and self-taught chemist – had been investigating various kinds of air. At this time, he was examining various ways of making air noxious: by the putrefaction of dead mice …

Dr Thomas Beddoes: chemistry, medicine, and the perils of democracy

Beddoes lectured on chemistry at Oxford in the years that included the French Revolution, the Terror, and the outbreak of war with France, as well as the success in France of the chemical revolution. The very public dispute between Edmund Burke and Joseph Priestley meant that the latter's study of different kinds of air was politically tainted. Beddoes's democratic beliefs and his support for the new chemistry of Lavoisier meant that as chemist and physician he had to deal with complaints that he was potentially seditious and pro-French. His medical theories, allied to pneumatic chemistry and building on the work of Priestley, were accordingly suspect. In spite of that, he became the physician and friend to several members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham and to members of their family, and they in return became his patrons. His collaboration with James Watt was crucial for his development of pneumatic medicine. The full extent of Lunar patronage, and especially that of James Keir and Thomas Wedgwood, has hitherto not been recognized, but it was the concealed scale of that patronage that made possible the execution of Beddoes's ambitious programme of treatment and research.

Quantifying the role of oxygen pressure in tissue function

it has been suggested that oxygen had reached significant levels in the earth's oceans as early as 2.5 billion years ago and has rapidly increased to near current levels about 50 million years later ([6][1]). The appearance of oxygen dramatically changed the chemical composition of the oceans and

“What then, poor Beastie!”: Gender, Politics, and Animal Experimentation in Anna Barbauld's “The Mouse's Petition”

�Despite the controversial status of animal experimentation during the eighteenth century, not much poetry of the period deals with this subject. Anna Letitia Barbauld’s frequently reprinted poem “The Mouse’s Petition” is both a rare and problematic exception. A note informs us that the poem was “found in the trap where . . . [a mouse] had been confined all night by Dr .P riestley, for the sake of making experiments with different kinds of air.” 1 Published in Barbauld’s Poems (Warrington, 1772), “The Mouse’s Petition” was singled out for praise by reviewers in the Monthly Review ,a popular liberal miscellany with a growing literary focus, and the Critical Review, which saw itself as a conservative alternative to the Monthly ,d evoting much of its space to politics but containing reviews of a wide range of contemporary publications. Reviewers applauded Barbauld for denouncing the inhumanity of Joseph Priestley and other experimental philosophers. Barbauld herself denied any such purpose, defending her friend Priestley and explaining that her poem was about “mercy” and “justice” rather than “humanity” and “cruelty.” Although she ended her statement of authorial intention there, she had equal reason to complain about the excessively literal reading of her poem. There is evidence to suggest that the situation of the mouse is intended to comment on a variety of hierarchical relationships

Transforming matter: a history of chemistry from alchemy to the buckyball

Contents: 1 First Steps: From Alchemy to Chemistry? 2 Robert Boyle: Chemistry and Experiment 3 A German Story: What Burns, and How 4 An Enlightened Discipline: Chemistry as Science and Craft 5 Different Kinds of Air 6 Theory and Practice: The Tools of Revolution 7 Atoms and Elements 8 The Rise of Organic Chemistry 9 Atomic Weights Revisited 10 The Birth of the Teaching-Research Laboratory 11 Atoms in Space 12 Physical Chemistry 13 The Nature of the Chemical Bond 14 Conclusion: Where Now, and Where Next? New Frontiers

Safety Topics

CONCERN about the development and implementation of collision avoidance systems has occupied companies and authorities for many years in various parts of the world and particularly in the USA where the density of all kinds of air traffic has increased substantially and will continue to do so into the foreseeable future. Although increases of density occur worldwide, the vast amount of private and business flying in North America makes it essential that any workable scheme of collision avoidance must have mandatory general aviation participation. The necessity for such a system has been underlined by mid‐air collisions which have happened over a considerable period of time and growing pressure has meant that the FAA in 1987 issued a Notice of Provisional Rulemaking (NPRM) in which comments about its contents were to have been received before the end of 1987.

Health Effects of Acid Rain: Are There Any?

THE SCIENTIFIC and medical literature was reviewed to determine the relationship between acid rain and human illness. Rain and a pH below 5.6 is referred to as acid rain. Although 'acid rain' or more properly acid deposition is a relatively new environmental issue, Robert Angus Smith described the condition in the highly industrialized city of Manchester, England, in 1872. While not precisely characterized, the mechanism of its formation appears to proceed from the photolytic transformation of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into sulfates and nitrates which in turn, in the presence of moisture, yield sulfuric and nitric acids. The oxides of sulfur and nitrogen are by-products of fossil fueled power plant, automobile exhausts, smelting and chemical processing. These oxides and acids have been associated with diminished fish populations, and malformations in a variety of estaurine species in Europe, the U.S. and Canada. Such destructive effects can signal potentially detrimental human health effects. Concern that acid rain may be a health hazard is widespread in our population. This review seeks to ascertain both the direct and indirect effects of acid precipitation by analyzing the salient scientific literature. An exhaustive search of the pertinent literature indicates that deleterious human health effects, if there are any, remain to be established. As a consequence of pollution abatement efforts the next 15 to 20 years should witness a reduction in acid levels. Accordingly, a worsening of current levels of chemical pollutants is not anticipated. Hence, a significant threat to public health via acid rain currently or in the the foreseeable future, should not be expected. Although acid rain' or more properly acid deposition, is a relatively new environmental issue in the United States, the term itself was advanced by Robert Angus Smith as early as 18721. Twenty years earlier in an article written for the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester (England) he remarked relative to that city's air that "we may therefore find easily three kinds of air, that with carbonate of ammonia in the fields at a distance, that with sulphate of ammonia in the suburbs, and that with sulphuric acid, or acid sulphate, in the town." He noted that it was the free sulfuric acid in Manchester's air which caused the fading of colors in textile as well as the rusting of metals2. Contemporary concern however was generated and focused by Oden's integration of both freshwater and atmospheric precipitation data reported in Sweden, and Schofields portentious observation of diminished fish populations in Adirondack Mountain lakes3,4,5. Currently there is an emerging scientific consensus that acid precipitation has destroyed life in some fresh water lakes and streams, particularly in northeastern United States and Canada, and has damaged buildings and other structures. Debate continues about the effects of acid rain on trees and plants and on human health. In August 1985, the U.S. EPA released a 1300 page document in which the studies of 50 environmental scientists were reported6. The following remark is contained in its summary: "acidic deposition (from precipitation) must contribute to acidification somewhere in the ecosystem. The deposition inputs may be over whelmed by the natural acidification process, however, and not cause measurable changes." Nevertheless, in January 1986, President Reagan's special representative on acid rain together with Canada's representative on the high-level acid rain panel, concluded in their report that acid rain is "a serious environmental problem". The scientific evidence, they find is "overwhelming"7. Whether acid rain is or is not a man-made pollutant, there is concern among the general public as to its potential for adverse health effects. Although these concerns are widespread, there has generally been little information available to concerned professionals, administrators, as well as the public regarding the actual risks to human health. The conclusion that exposure is tantamount to illness may be overdrawn. This review seeks to determine both the direct and indirect effects of acid precipitation on human health, by analyzing the salient scientific documents, published papers and summaries of national and international conferences.

Priestley Lecture. ‘On the science of deep-sea diving—observations on the respiration of different kinds of air’

Priestley Lecture. ‘On the science of deep-sea diving—observations on the respiration of different kinds of air’

Joseph Priestley, William Duncan and Analytic Arrangement in 18th-Century Scientific Discourse

With the rise of science, 18th-century logic and rhetoric began to make use of inductive patterns of discourse. In logic, William Duncan discussed two methods of organizing extended discourse, the methods of analysis and synthesis. Analysis represents the movement of thought as the thinker or writer works through a problem to discover its solution. This method is actually an early form of what is now known as problem solving that Joseph Priestley, a rhetorician as well as a scientist, introduced into rhetoric. He uses analysis in his scientific writing, especially in his Experiments on Different Kinds of Air, in the form of a five-stage mental operation or heuristic that records the progress of his thoughts as he experimented on air to isolate and identify oxygen.

Ideas and anomalies in the evolution of modern oxygen therapy.

Ideas and anomalies in the evolution of modern oxygen therapy.

Joseph Black and fixed air. II.

Previous articleNext article No AccessJoseph Black and Fixed Air: Part IIHenry GuerlacHenry Guerlac Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Isis Volume 48, Number 4Dec., 1957 Publication of the History of Science Society Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/348610 Views: 5Total views on this site Citations: 5Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1957 History of Science Society, Inc.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:John G. McEvoy Gases, God and the balance of nature: a commentary on Priestley (1772) ‘Observations on different kinds of air’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 373, no.20392039 (Apr 2015): 20140229.https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2014.0229John B. West Joseph Black, Carbon Dioxide, Latent Heat, and the Beginnings of the Discovery of the Respiratory Gases, (Jan 2015): 99–112.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2362-5_9John B. West Joseph Black, carbon dioxide, latent heat, and the beginnings of the discovery of the respiratory gases, American Journal of Physiology-Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 306, no.1212 (Jun 2014): L1057–L1063.https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00020.2014J. R. Partington Hales and Black, (Jan 1962): 109–158.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-00309-9_4Rhoda Rappaport Rouelle and Stahl—The Phlogistic Revolution in France, Chymia 7 (Jan 1961): 73–102.https://doi.org/10.2307/27757206

The Oxidation of Atmospheric Nitrogen in the Electric Arc

IN the year 1775 Priestley published his “Experiments and Observations on Various Kinds of Air,” in which he showed that when a series of sparks was passed through air, the air became acid. The experiment was carried out by means of a glass tube, having one end closed with wax through which a wire was fixed, the open end being placed over a solution of blue litmus. Sparks were passed between the solution and the wire, and in a short time the blue litmus turned red. He further noticed the important fact that the water gradually rose up towards the wire. The observations of Priestley were shortly afterwards substantiated by Cavendish, and in 1893 Lord Rayleigh, with better apparatus and appliances, repeated the experiments which ultimately led him to the discovery of argon. Priestley attributed the acidity to the formation of carbon dioxide, but Cavendish, on repeating the work, proved it to be due to the formation of nitric and nitrous acids.

Some Primitive Ideas on Meteorology

IN an article published in NATURE (vol. xxv. p. 82) on the opinions of the Chinese Emperor Khang-hi on certain natural phenomena, it will be remembered that the yang and yin, or the male and female principles of Chinese philosophy, played a conspicuous part. Japan, it is well known, adopted at a very early period in its history the law, polity, science, philosophy, and writing of the Chinese, and with them the yang and yin; and it may not be uninteresting to our readers to see how the doctrine of these dual forces, mutually repellent as well as attractive, has been employed to explain the facts of meteorology. A recent issue of the Japan Gazette newspaper of Yokohama contains the translation of a work written in 1821 by a certain Arai Yoshinari, called the “Ten-chi-jii; or, Ideas about Heaven and Earth.” The heavens, the writer says, are very high, the earth is very thick; we cannot ascend to the one or go down into the other; consequently man was unable for many generations to comprehend the phenomena of either; but now the opinions of all philosophers on this subject are based on the action and reaction of the male and female, the active and passive principles of nature upon each other. The rain is a changed form of the male, and the vapour under the earth of the female principle. When the male principle sinks into the earth it pursues the female. The earth is the mother of all things and the heaven is the air or wind where the sun, the moon, and the stars hang shining. There are two kinds of air—the heaven-air and the earth-air. The motion of the heavens is contrary to that of running water. The heavens move from east to west, while water runs from west to east. In some districts, indeed, water in the earth runs towards the north, but meets the earth-air which obstructs its flow, causes much agitation, and finally its complete evaporation from the surface of the earth. The vapour thus formed ascends and becomes clouds, which are again turned into rain by the action of the wind. The water has periods of increase and decrease according to the male and female seasons; thus in summer, which is the male season, water increases, while in winter, or the female season, it diminishes. Again, the earth-air is changed into rain when it moves from east to west; and therefore, previous to rain, we see a white vapour in the morning ascending in the east. “This is a clear proof of the earth's growing hot.” For the same reason mountains become somewhat darker just before rain.

A continuation of the experiments and observations on the light which is spontaneously emitted from various bodies; with some experiments and observations on solar light, when imbibed by Canton’s phosphorus

A short description is here premised of an apparatus for exposing luminous bodies to different kinds of air, which, in addition to the well-known glass phial or tube inverted in water, consists in a small stand, to the top of which the luminous substance is fixed, and thus inserted into the inverted phial, into which the species of air to be employed is previously let up to the quantity of about eight ounces. With these instruments a copious set of experiments has been made, of which the following are the principal results. In common or atmospherical air, all the objects which abound with spontaneous light in a latent state, such as herrings, mackerel, &c., do not emit it when deprived of life, except from such parts as have been some time in contact with the air. Nor does the blast of a pair of bellows increase this species of light, as it does that which pro­ceeds from combustion.

Experiments Relating to the Change of Place in Different Kinds of Air through Several Interposing Substances

Experiments Relating to the Change of Place in Different Kinds of Air through Several Interposing Substances