Kindergarten Entry Research Articles

Neural Processing of Speech Sounds in Autistic Kindergarteners as a Predictor of Reading Outcomes.

Phonology is an important foundation of reading development; however, little is known about the neural substrates of speech sound processing and reading development in autistic children. We investigated early auditory event-related potentials (ERPs) in response to speech sounds and their association with reading ability (word recognition and reading comprehension). 56 kindergarteners (28 ASD, 28 TD) completed an ERP task using rhyming, bisyllabic pseudowords (/gibu/ and /bidu/) in an old/new design: 50% "old" and 50% "new" stimuli presented following a sensitization block of 100% "old" stimuli. Behavioral measures of reading ability were completed at kindergarten entry and exit. Results from generalized linear mixed models revealed a significant three-way interaction between stimuli ("new" vs. "old"), diagnosis (ASD vs. TD), and reading ability (for word recognition and reading comprehension) for P1 and P2 amplitude. Follow-up analyses revealed that autistic children with lower reading abilities showed greater P1 and P2 amplitudes for "new" vs. "old" stimuli, with effects ranging from marginal to significant (p's 0.04-0.07). Regression analyses revealed that old/new ERP difference scores significantly predicted later word recognition at kindergarten year-end (P1 amplitude: p = .05; P2 amplitude: p = .04), but not reading comprehension, controlling for sex and nonverbal IQ. Autistic children with poorer reading skills, specifically those with weaker word recognition abilities, show neural differences when processing speech sounds compared to autistic peers with greater reading ability and typically developing children. A better understanding of the neural basis of speech sound processing could enhance our insight into the heterogeneity in reading among individuals with ASD and guide future treatment approaches.

Reimagining early childhood education and school readiness through the perspectives of historically marginalized families living in a rural community

Given opportunities for early childhood education (ECE) expansion in the US, we seek to explore and elevate the perspectives of historically marginalized families, from an understudied rural community, to inform future local and state action involving public pre-kindergarten (pre-K) and kindergarten (K) provision. In partnership with a state Department of Education (DOE) and local district, we conducted two culturally responsive focus groups to investigate how such caregivers conceptualize ECE and school readiness, identify barriers with the current system, and pinpoint potential solutions to improve public pre-K and K. Participants included eight female caregivers, three of whom identified as Black, two as Hispanic, and three as White. All families met the DOE's eligibility requirements to attend public preschool. Through two 90-minute focus groups, we found families conceptualized ECE as a time for humanizing and hands-on classroom practices. They questioned the concept of school readiness, instead advocating for ways that schools can be ready for their children. Furthermore, families identified accountability culture (testing, standardization of curricula, narrow focus on core academic content, etc.), as a problem, particularly upon kindergarten entry. Solutions to improve pre-K and K included representative curricula, more equitable funding, and opportunities for collaboration across education interest-holders (e.g., teachers, families, administration, etc.) at school, district, and state levels.

Participation in the Missouri Parents as Teachers Parent Education Program and third grade math and English language arts proficiency

The Missouri Parents as Teachers (PAT) Parent Education Program is a voluntary and universal home visiting program available to all Missouri families who are expecting a child or who have a child ages birth to kindergarten entry. Families participating in the Missouri PAT Parent Education Program receive a variety of family support services, including family personal visits with trained parent educators to develop parent practices and child school readiness. Research indicates that home visiting components of parent education programs support child academic outcomes. However, studies have not extensively examined how variation in participation, including the developmental period of exposure—the child's age upon entry and duration of participation—and number and frequency of home/family visits, is associated with child outcomes. In this study, we used linear probability regression to examine associations between variation in participation in the Missouri PAT Parent Education Program and child third grade proficiency in math and English language arts (ELA) (n = 9777), while controlling for relevant child, parent, family, and school-level factors. We also tested the potential moderating role of family low-income status at enrollment into the program. We found that the number of family personal visits was positively associated with third-grade math and ELA proficiency, whereas no significant findings emerged for developmental period of program exposure. Our findings indicate that increased exposure to the Missouri PAT Parent Education Program was positively associated with third-grade academic achievement for all children, including those from low-income families.

Impacts of a Summer Transition Program on Kindergarten Readiness for Children from Disadvantaged Backgrounds

ABSTRACT Kindergarten transition programs support successful school transitions for families and may reduce disparities in academic readiness upon school entry. Yet, access and participation in high-quality summer transition programs are lower among children from disadvantaged backgrounds. This study examined the impact of a summer kindergarten transition program on children’s readiness in language and literacy, mathematical thinking, and social foundations and the strength of their home-school relationships. Assessment scores of 416 kindergartners within 30 classrooms in 28 elementary schools in one southeastern state were analyzed. Children who participated demonstrated significantly more readiness in their language and literacy, mathematical thinking, and social foundation skills compared with children who were eligible but did not participate in the program. Further, children who participated in the program had significantly stronger home-school relationships compared to children who were eligible but did not participate and those who were not eligible to participate in the program. The findings provide preliminary evidence that summer transition programs are an equitable strategy to reduce achievement gaps upon kindergarten entry. School administrators should consider implementing summer transition programs to support academic readiness and develop strong home-school relationships in communities with a high population of children who are at risk for later school difficulties.

The relationships between teachers’ evaluation of children’s academic readiness and children’s later outcomes

Kindergarten is emphasized as a critical first entry into the education system, as politicians and pundits believe kindergartners’ success can lead to later academic achievement. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of kindergarten school readiness data should consider how it is measured and how that affects learning. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Studies—Kindergarten (ECLS-K) cohort 2010–2011 data, the author examined the relationship between teacher reports about children’s academic readiness at kindergarten entrance and their later outcomes in reading, math, and science through fifth grade. This study used a latent basis growth model with time-invariant predictors to analyze the relationship's trajectory. Overall, findings determined that teachers’ perceptions of children’s Approaches to Learning, mathematical thinking, and science significantly impacted later achievements in math and science direct assessments throughout elementary education. This research discussed the practice and policy implications on teachers’ perceptions of school readiness and its impact on later academic outcomes.

Association between Dietary Practices and Growth Trajectories in Preschool Children.

To estimate the association of dietary practices with early life weight among children born in 2001 in the U.S. The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-B) is a population-based cohort followed from 9 months to Kindergarten entry (n~5000). We employed an auto-regressive cross-lagged model to assess the impacts of dietary practices on weight stability over time. We calculated age- and sex-standardized BMI z-scores using WHO growth curves. BMI z-scores had a stable increase over time. Later age of solid food introduction was associated with lower BMI z-score at age 2y [-0.03(-0.05,-0.004)]; having dinners more times per week with family at age 2y was associated with higher BMI z-score at 4y [0.03(0.01,0.05)]. These changes, of <0.05 BMI z-score, are small. Children with higher birthweight were introduced to solid foods at younger ages [-0.39 months(-0.45,-0.32)] and were breast fed longer [0.13 months(0.04,0.22)]. For girls, having dinner at a regular time at ages 2y and 4y was associated with lower BMI at ages 4y and 5y. Dietary practices in early childhood affect weight trajectories. However, these effects are small and are largely overshadowed by prior weight. Children's weight in infancy is associated with subsequent dietary practices but also small effects.

Kindergarten Predictors of Third-Grade Reading, Math, and Science Achievement: The Influences of Self-Regulation and Early Language Development

Young children’s self-regulation (executive function; approaches to learning) and early language functions have been shown to independently predict children’s achievement in school, particularly reading and mathematics. Controlling for SES, gender and age at kindergarten entry, hierarchical multiple regression was used to test the hypothesis that children’s executive functions, approaches to learning, and early language functions at the beginning of kindergarten would predict third-grade reading, mathematics, and science achievement. Third-grade is a benchmark year as it usually marks the beginning of standardized testing and plays a pivotal role in determining children’s academic trajectories. Data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Class of 2010-2011 (ECLS-K: 2011) were used to test the hypotheses. The hypothesized models suggest that executive function, approaches to learning, and language functions measured at the beginning of kindergarten are predictive of third-grade academic achievement. While the factors were individually predictive, the regression model was the strongest when it included the factors collectively. Implications for both policy and practice are noted.

Educator Perspectives on a Kindergarten Entry Assessment: Implementation Experiences, Support, and Data Utilization

Educator Perspectives on a Kindergarten Entry Assessment: Implementation Experiences, Support, and Data Utilization

Supporting children and families with opportunity gaps: educators’ perspectives of a summer kindergarten transition program

ABSTRACT Effective transitions to kindergarten engage families and ease children into new environments. Countdown to Kindergarten (CTK), a program in a southeastern U.S. state that serves more than 1,000 children each year and is grounded in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, partners kindergarten teachers and families to facilitate effective transitions for those who often experience opportunity gaps. Research partners surveyed 238 CTK educators (98% of participating educators). Educators indicated that CTK had a positive impact on increasing family awareness of school expectations, promoting smooth transitions, and developing positive relationships between teachers and families. The perceived quality of CTK and parent investment in CTK significantly predicted educators’ belief that CTK exceeded its goals of enhancing connections between the blended systems in which children interact. The model provides curricular approaches, activities, and materials for six sessions prior to kindergarten entry that can be replicated to better serve children and families in need.

Forced to Redshirt: Quasi-Experimental Impacts of Delayed Kindergarten Entry

Parents consider whether to enroll their child in kindergarten on time, or to delay entry, known as “redshirting.” States have also moved their birthdate cutoffs to earlier in the year to create older, higher achieving cohorts. However, the impacts on the intermediate- and long-run outcomes of delayed entry are unclear, as are the mechanisms through which advantages or disadvantages may accrue. We provide plausibly causal estimates of delayed kindergarten entry impacts on achievement by exploiting a policy change in the birthdate enrollment cutoff for North Carolina public schools requiring children born in a six-week window to redshirt. We compare the outcomes of “forced” redshirts with several different counterfactual peer groups using statewide administrative data to triangulate the mechanisms through which delayed entry alters outcomes and inform educational theory. Delayed entry provides benefits to math and reading achievement, and reduced identification of having a disability; these impacts operate through cohort position and maturation advantages, and not from hold-out year experiences. Forced redshirting was differentially beneficial for students who are low-income, but further disadvantaged students of color.

Trends in the school lunch program: Changes in selection, nutrition & health

There has been significant national attention to the issue of childhood obesity, leading policymakers to reform the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) to include stricter nutritional requirements. We use data on school lunch menus to document improvements in the nutritional quality of school meals between 1991 and 2010. We then evaluate how this change in nutritional content maps into obesity outcomes, using panel data on a nationally representative cohort of children, tracking them from kindergarten entry in fall 2010 through the end of fifth grade in spring 2016. We find little evidence that participation in the school lunch program leads to weight gain, as measured by changes in obesity, overweight, and BMI. These results suggest that improvements in the nutritional content of school lunches have been largely successful in reversing the previously negative relationship between school lunches and childhood obesity.

The mixed-delivery pre-k opportunity gap? Differences in demographics, quality, and children's gains in community-based versus public school programs across five large-scale systems

Mixed-delivery prekindergarten (Pre-K) systems with slots in both public schools and community-based organization (CBO) settings are common in the U.S. Historically, policies and investments in many of these systems have placed CBOs and, by extension the children who attend them, at a disadvantage relative to public school programs and peers. In this descriptive study, we used secondary data to explore setting inequities in five large-scale Pre-K mixed-delivery systems (Boston, New York City, Seattle, New Jersey, and West Virginia), all of which had taken explicit steps to improve equity across settings. Our public school sample included 2,247 children in 367 classrooms in 146 schools and our CBO sample consisted of 1,700 children in 220 classrooms in 109 centers. We found evidence of substantial sorting of children and teachers by setting. Where we found differences in quality and children's gains, these tended to favor public schools. However, localities with fewer policy differences by setting showed fewer such setting differences. Findings suggest that advancing the goals of equitable, high-quality Pre-K access and narrowing opportunity gaps before kindergarten entry may require more research and policy attention to mixed-delivery setting policy equity.

Big little leap: The role of transition difficulties in children's skill development during kindergarten

Considerable interest is directed to promoting children’s success as they transition to kindergarten. It is generally proposed that children who experience lower levels of transition difficulties at kindergarten entry achieve higher academic and socialemotional gains, although this premise has seldom been explicitly evaluated in tandem with children's kindergarten readiness skills. To improve understanding of the consequences of transition difficulties, this study investigated the role of transition difficulties at the child level to children's achievements at the end of the kindergarten year in a Midwestern state in the US. Results from a series of covariate-adjusted regression models showed that children who experienced less transition difficulties at the beginning of kindergarten demonstrated relatively more gains in math, reading, and social-behavioral skills at the end of kindergarten, even when controlling for kindergarten readiness skills, child and family characteristics, and classroom-level contextual factors. The findings also indicated that the associations between kindergarten transition difficulties and academic and social-behavioral skill development at the end of kindergarten did not vary by children's academic and social-behavioral skills at kindergarten entry. Taken together, these findings suggest that transition difficulties that children encounter within the kindergarten context may have significant and independent implications for children's skill development. Possible practices to ease transition difficulties are discussed.

A Longitudinal Examination of Latinx Students’ Kindergarten Readiness with High School Achievement and Discipline Violations

Understanding achievement and discipline trajectories of Latinx students is critical given disproportionate dropout/pushout rates of Latinx students from schools across the U.S. Using a Critical Race Theory framework, the current study examined longitudinal associations amongst a sample of (N = 1672) Latinx youths’ school readiness at kindergarten entry and their subsequent academic achievement and discipline violation assignments in high school, also examining the associations with gender, socioeconomic status, English language status, and special education status. A moderated mediation analysis found that high school achievement fully mediated the negative association between kindergarten readiness and high school discipline outcomes. Gender, SES, and English language status were all found to have non-significance or poor fit as moderators. The association between kindergarten readiness and high school achievement was significant for students in general education but not in special education. Implications related to these findings, early assessment, intervention, and best school discipline practices are discussed.

Patterns of children's readiness at school entry and their association with kindergarten academic and social-emotional outcomes: Do classroom interactions matter?

This study used a person-centered approach to identify school readiness profiles in a sample of kindergartners (n=1,826) from a large and diverse school district in the United States. Using latent profile analyses and multi-level modeling, we examined three aims: 1) whether patterns of readiness skills at kindergarten entry could be detected, 2) the extent to which detected patterns predicted gains in academic and social-emotional skills, and 3) whether the quality of teacher–child interactions moderated the associations between profile membership and end of kindergarten outcomes. Based on a comparison of fit indices, a 4-profile solution best represented the data. Eighteen percent of children were in the “High Risk” profile, 34 % were in the “Ready” profile, 20 % percent of children were in the “Social-Emotional Risk” profile, and 28 % of children were in the “High Readiness” profile. For all outcomes, we found that profile membership predicted spring scores, after controlling for fall scores of each skill, suggesting that the constellation of kindergarten readiness skills matters more than any one skill. We also found that the quality of teacher–child interactions moderated associations between profile membership and changes in achievement and problem behavior for children within some groups. Results suggest that children enter kindergarten with unique profiles of skills and that supports for children may need to be individualized based on profiles to maximize social, emotional, and academic development. Results also suggest that high-quality teacher–child interactions may serve as an important protective and promotive factor for children with certain clusters of readiness skills at kindergarten entry.

The First-Grade Outcomes of Pre-K Attendees: Examining Benefits as a Function of Skill Type, Environments, and Subgroups

This study examined whether pre-K benefits persist through the end of first grade and the extent to which persistence differs based on outcome domains, subsequent classroom environments, and key subgroups of children. Data from 2,351 children living in a large and diverse county in Virginia revealed that the initial benefits of pre-K for academic and executive function persisted through the end of first grade but were 75% to 80% smaller than at kindergarten entry. Kindergarten and first-grade classroom environments did not sustain pre-K benefits. Although the initial benefits of pre-K were larger for dual language learners and children in poverty relative to English speakers and low-income children, there were no differential benefits by the end of first grade.

Pre‐K attendance and social development: The moderating role of kindergarten classroom experiences

AbstractAlthough academic benefits of pre‐K are well established, the associations between pre‐K attendance and social and learning behaviours are less clear. Some research suggests that pre‐K attenders may enter and exit kindergarten exhibiting less optimal social and learning behaviours than their non‐attending peers, and little attention has been paid to how aspects of kindergarten experiences, like academic rigour, activity settings and teacher–student relationships, may contribute to these patterns of development. The current study addresses these gaps in knowledge by using nationally representative data from the ECLSK:2011 (n = 14,260) to examine the social and learning behaviours of pre‐K attenders and nonattenders at kindergarten entry and exit. Our results reveal that pre‐K attenders are not consistently underperforming their non‐attending peers on social and learning behaviours in kindergarten. However, teachers reported that pre‐K attenders exhibited more externalising behaviour problems at kindergarten entry and exit, and non‐attenders made greater gains in learning behaviours over the kindergarten year. We also found no evidence of moderation when examining our focal classroom experience variables.

Stress across the Transition from Preschool to School: Association with the Development of Anxiety Symptoms in Children

Children experiencing maladjustment during the transition from preschool to school could further develop internalizing disorders, such as anxiety. Children’s sensitivity to stress is a good indicator of children’s adjustment, but atypical sensitivity, measured by cortisol concentrations, was often linked to later development of anxiety symptoms. Our previous study (PNEC, 2022) showed that most children’s morning cortisol concentrations increased during the first two weeks of kindergarten, and that the adaptation response rate varied between children two months after school entry. The current study aimed to test whether children’s atypical morning cortisol concentration across the transition to kindergarten was associated with an increase in anxiety symptoms 1.5 years later. To model morning cortisol concentrations during the transition, a latent growth model was used (n = 384; one sample for each of the four time-points). Anxiety symptoms were measured twice, before kindergarten entry and in first grade, by parent-report questionnaires. The items were combined using latent variables, one for each time-point. Controlling for pre-transition anxiety symptoms, cortisol level during the first week of school (β = -0.18) predicted anxiety symptoms 1.5 years later. Changes in cortisol levels across the transition did not add to the prediction. This study showed that low morning stress response to a normative environmental stressor was followed by increased levels of anxiety symptoms. Consistent with the stress sensitization hypothesis, this lower stress response is frequently linked to anxiety problems in children who previously experienced adversity; this remains to be examined in this sample.

State-Funded Pre-K and Children’s Language and Literacy Development: The Case of COVID-19

Research on how COVID-19 school closures impacted the learning of young children is still sparse, and the broader implications of these findings have yet to be fully explored. In this study, we examine the impacts of COVID-19 school closures on language and literacy development in a state-funded pre-K program in a Florida school district. Using COVID closures as a natural experiment, we additionally explore the implications of these findings for the literature on the efficacy and dosage of state-funded pre-K programs. We used propensity score matching to compare children from the COVID cohort ( n = 1,211) to children from a pre-COVID cohort ( n = 1,167). Results revealed no significant difference on the Florida Kindergarten Readiness Screener (FLKRS) assessment between the two cohorts at kindergarten entry. The COVID cohort had significantly higher scores on each of the individual subdomains of the FLKRS than the pre-COVID cohort, with especially large positive effect sizes for constrained literacy skills. Results indicate that COVID-19 closures did not have significant negative impacts on pre-K children’s language and literacy skills at kindergarten entry. Findings further suggest that state-funded pre-K programs with comparatively less funding and lower quality ratings may not provide adequate support for children’s language and literacy outcomes.

Exploring the predictors of enrollment and kindergarten entry skills of Spanish-speaking dual language learners in a mixed-delivery system of public preschool

Dual language learners (DLLs) – young children learning and developing in multiple languages – make up nearly-one-third of the population of public preschool attendees in the U.S. Yet despite the large number of DLLs attending the nation’s largest public preschool programs – Head Start and state-funded public pre-k – little is known about DLL families’ patterns of selection into each program, nor about the relative benefits of each program for DLLs’ early learning. The present study uses contemporary data from a mixed-delivery system of public preschool in Tulsa, Oklahoma to examine predictors of attending Head Start or Tulsa Public Schools (TPS) pre-k, as well as whether program type is associated with differences in DLLs’ kindergarten entry skills. Among DLLs from economically-disadvantaged families, we find some limited differences between DLLs who selected into TPS public pre-k versus Head Start: TPS public pre-k attenders were more likely to have married mothers, parents who chose a preschool program based on logistical opportunities/constraints rather than programmatic preferences, and greater attention/impulse control skills at the start of preschool than were Head Start attenders. We then examined the association between program type and children’s academic and self-regulation skills at kindergarten entry. Controlling for predictors of differential enrollment and children’s earlier skills, we find no differences in kindergarten skills across students who attended Head Start and TPS public pre-k, suggesting both programs prepare DLLs equally well for school success.